^ 


IBRAR 


JIIVO- 
CALIF! 


■  .t; 


^  J  ijjf'.  v'jui 


^         ?.. 


^, 


FH  (rr\i-' 


BROWN'S    GRAMMAR    IMPROVED.   ' 

THE 

INSTITUTES 

OF 

ENGLISH   GRAMMAR 

METHODICALLY  ARRANGED; 

WITH 

rORMS  OF  PARSING  AND  CORRECTING,  EXAMPLES  FOR  PAESINQ, 

QUESTIONS  FOR  EXAMINATION,  FALSE  SYNTAX  FOR  COR. 

EECTION,  EXERCISES  FOR  WRITING,  OBSERVATIONS 

FOR   THE   ADVANCED    STUDENT, 

METHODS  OF  ANALYSIS, 

AND 

A  KEY  TO  TIIE  DEAL  EXERCISES: 

TO   WHICH    ARE   ADDED   FOUR   APPENDIXES. 

iBSIGNED   FOR  1UK   USE   OP   SCHOOLS,  ACADEMIES,  AND  PRIVATE  LEARNEBJi 


BY    GOOLD    BROWN, 

PRINCIPAL   OF    AN    ISNOL181I   AND  CLASSICAL   ACADEMY,    NEW   TOEK. 


"W«  quis  igltur  tanquain  p.irva  fustidiat  Grammatices  elemeuta." — Q[jii(TU,tA& 


A   NEW   EDITION, 
WITH   EXERCISES   IN   ANALYSIS   AND  PARSING, 

BY   HENRY   KIDDLE,  A.  M., 

ASSISTANT  SUPERINTKNDENT   OF   COMMON  SCHOOLS,   NEW   YORK  CITY. 


1        ■3  /    * 


.WILLIAM  W0OT>  ■&■  GO.j  ■  27  Gt.-  JONES  STREET 

187S. 


ADVERTISEMENT. 


TiiE  Gxcellenco  of  Brown's  Grammars,  both  as  treatises  and  school-boolis,  Is 
Tery  generally  acknowledged.  The  repeated  demands,  however,  for  a  more  extend- 
ed treatment  of  the  "  Analysis  of  Sentences"  than  was  thought  necessary  by  tho 
anther,  has  induced  the  publisher  to  issue  a  new  edition,  containing  a  full  and  pro- 
gressive exposition  of  this  department  of  grammar,  and  an  entirely  new  series  of 
exercises  and  examples,  both  for  analysis  and  parsing,  with  observations  and  refer- 
cnces  to  make  them  correspond  with  the  body  of  tho  work.  The  exercises  in  Anal- 
ysis, and  the  definitions  necessary  to  explain  them,  have  not  been  confined  to  tlio 
department  of  Syntax,  as  in  most  other  grammatical  text-books,  but  made  to  com- 
mence at  a  point  where  the  intelligent  progress  of  tho  pupil  seems  to  demand  such 
aid.  No  attempt  has  been  made  to  revise  the  text,  or  change  the  system  of  grammar 
therein  explained ;  because,  while  no  change  could  possibly  accommodate  it  to  tho 
views  of  all,  the  intelligent  teacher  can  find  no  difficulty  in  varying  it,  in  a  few  minor 
particulars,  so  as  to  make  it  correspond  with  his  own  views.  Witu  these  alterations, 
the  publisher  hopes  that  these  works  will  be  found  more  useful  to  the  public,  and  a 
more  valuable  aid  to  teachers  in  imparting  instruction  in  this  important  branch  ol 
•ducAtioa. 


•~' — ' -7 

Entered,  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  iji  thu  yeor  185C,  by 

GOOLD     BKOWN, 

In  the  Clerk's  Office  of  the  District  Court  of  the  District  of  Massachusetts. 


Entered,  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1S62,  bi' 
S .    8 .    &    W .    WOOD, 

In  the  Clerk's  Office  of  the  District  Court  of  the  United  States  for  the  Southar* 

]")isti  let  of  New  York. 


1 1 

PREFACE. 

*'Neque  erdm  aut  dliena  vituperare,  aut  nostra  jactanti us prccdioare,  animus  esL^ 

1.  Lanotjaqf-  is  the  principal  vehicle  of  thought ;  and  so  numerous  and  important 
are  the  ends  to  which  it  is  subservient,  that  it  is  difficult  to  conceive  In  what  manner 
the  affairs  of  human  society  could  be  conducted  without  it.  Its  utility,  therefore,  will 
ever  entitle  it  to  a  considerable  share  of  attention  in  civilized  communities,  and  (o  an 
Important  place  in  ail  systems  of  education.  For,  wliatever  we  may  think  in  relation 
to  its  origin— whether  we  consider  it  a  special  gift  from  Heaven,  or  an  acquisition  of 
industry^  natural  endowment,  or  an  artiticial  invention, — certain  it  is,  that,  in  tlie 
present  state  of  things,  our  knowledge  of  it  depends,  in  a  great  measure,  if  not  entirely, 
on  the  voluntary  e.xercise  of  our  faculties,  and  ou  the  helps  and  opportunities  afforded 
us.  One  may  indeed  acquire,  by  mere  imitation,  such  a  knowledge  of  words,  as  to 
enjoy  the  ordinary  advantages  of  speech;  and  he  who  is  salistiedwith  the  dialect  he 
has  so  obtained,  will  tind  no  occasion  for  treatises  on  grammar ;  but  he  who  is  desirous 
either  of  relishing  the  beauties  of  literary  composition,  or  of  expressing  kia  sentiments 
with  propriety  and  ease,  must  make  the  principles  of  language  liis  study. 

2.  It  is  not  the  business  of  the  grammarian  to  give  Icmo  to  language,  but  to  teach  it, 
agreeably  to  the  best  usage.  The  ultimate  principle  by  which  he  must  be  governed, 
and  with  wliich  his  instructionb  must  always  accord,  is  that  species  of  custom  which 
critics  denominate  ooou  use;  that  is,  present,  reputable,  general  use.  This  principle, 
which  is  equally  opposed  to  fantastic  iimovation,  and  to  a  pertinacious  adherence  to 
the  quaint  peculiarities  of  ancient  usage,  is  the  only  proper  standard  of  graranuitical 
purity.  Those  rules  and  modes  of  speech,  which  are  established  by  this  authority, 
may  be  called  the  Institutes  of  Grammar. 

3.  To  embody,  in  a  convenient  form,  the  true  principles  of  the  English  Language; 
to  express  them  in  a  simple  and  perspicuous  style,  adapted  to  the  capacity  of  youth; 
to  illustrate  them  by  appropriate  examples  and  exercises;  and  to  give  to  the  whole  all 
possible  advantage  from  method  iu  the  arrangiraent;  are  the  objects  of  the  following 
work.  Tlie  author  has  not  deviated  much  from  the  principles  adopted  in  the  most 
approved  grammars  already  in  use ;  nor  has  he  acted  the  part  of  a  servile  copyist.  It 
was  not  his  design  to  introduce  novelties,  but  to  form  a  practical  digest  of  established 
rules.  He  has  not  laboured  to  subvert  the  general  system  of  grammar,  received  from 
time  immemorial;  but  to  improve  upon  it,  iu  its  present  application  to  our  tongue. 

4.  That  which  is  excellent,  may  not  be  perfect;  and  amendment  may  be  desirable, 
where  subversion  would  be  ruinous.  Believing  that  no  theory  can  better  explain  the 
principles  of  our  language,  and  no  contrivance  aflford  greater  facilities  to  the  student, 
the  writer  has  in  general  adopted  those  doctrines  which  are  already  best  known ;  and 
has  contented  himself  with  attempting  little  more  than  an  improved  method  of  incul- 
cating tliem.  The  scope  of  his  labours  has  been,  to  define,  dispose,  and  exemplify 
those  doctrines  anew ;  and,  with  a  scrupulous  regard  to  the  best  usage,  to  otfi3r,  on 
that  authority,  some  further  contributions  to  the  stock  of  grammatical  knowledge. 
The  errors  of  former  grammarians  he  has  been  more  studious  to  avoid  than  to  expose ; 
and  of  tlieir  delicioucies  the  reader  may  judge,  when  he  sees  in  what  manner  they  aro 
here  supplied. 

5.  Tills  treatise  being  intended  for  general  use,  and  adapted  to  aH  classes  of  learners, 
was  designed  to  embrace  in  a  small  compass  a  complete  course  of  English  Grammar, 
disencumbered  of  every  thing  not  calculated  to  convey  direct  information  on  the  sub- 
ject Little  regard  has  therefore  been  paid  to  gainsayers.  Grammarians  have  over 
disputed,  and  often  with  more  acrimony  than  discretion.  Those  wlio  have  dealt  most 
in  philological  controversy,  have  well  illustrated  the  couplet  of  Dcnham: 

"  The  tree  of  knowledge,  blasted  by  disputes, 
Produces  saples.f  leaves  in  stead  of  fruits." 

6.  They  who  set  aside  the  authority  of  custom,  and  judge  every  thing  to  be  ungram- 
matical  which  appears  to  them  to  be  uuphilosophical,  render  the  whole  ground  forever 
disputable,  and  weary  themselves  in  beating  the  air.  So  various  have  been  the  notions 
of  this  sort  of  critics,  that  it  would  be  difficult  to  mention  an  opinion  not  found  ia 
Bome  of  tlieir  books.  Amidst  this  rage  for  speculation  ou  a  subject  purely  practical, 
various  attempts  have  been  made,  to  overthrow  that  system  of  instruction,  which  long 
use  has  rendered  venerable,  and  long  experience  proved  to  be  useful.  But  it  is  mani- 
festly much  easier  to  raise  even  plausible  objections  against  this  system,  than  to  iu- 


233482 


IV  PREFACE. 

vent  on  otlier  less  objectionablp.     Pnch  attempts  have  generally  met  the  reception 
they  deserved.     Their  liistory  will  give  no  encouragement  to  future  innovators. 

7.  While  some  have  thus  wasted  their  energies  in  eccentric  flights,  vainly  supposing 
that  the  learning  (if  ages  would  give  place  to  their  whimsical  theories;  others,  with 
more  success,  not  better  deserved,  have  multiplied  grammars  almost  iunumerably,  by 
abridging  or  modifying  the  books  they  had  used  in  childhood.  So  that  they  who  are 
at  all  acquainted  with  the  origin  and  character  of  the  various  compends  thus  intro- 
duced into  our  schools,  cannot  but  desire  a  work  which  shall  deserve  a  more  extensive 
and  more  permanent  patronage,  based  upon  better  claims.  For,  as  Lord  Bacon  ob- 
Berves,  the  number  of  ill-written  books  is  not  to  be  diminished  by  ceasing  to  write,  buf 
by  writing  others  whicli,  like  Aaron's  serpent,  shall  swallow  up  the  spurious. 

8.  The  nature  of  the  subject  almost  entirely  precludes  invention.  The  author  has, 
however,  aimed  at  that  kind  and  degree  of  originality,  which  are  to  be  commended  in 
vorks  of  this  sort ;  and  has  borrowed  no  more  from  others  than  did  the  most  learned 
and  popular  of  his  predecessors.  And,  though  he  has  taken  the  liberty  to  think  and 
■write  for  himself,  he  trusts  it  will  be  evident  that  few  have  excelled  him  in  diligence 
of  research,  or  have  followed  more  implicitly  the  dictates  of  that  authority  which 
gives  law  to  language. 

9.  All  science  is  laid  in  the  nature  of  things ;  and  he  only  who  seeks  it  there,  can 
Tightly  guide  others  in  the  paths  of  knowledge.  He  alone  can  know  whether  his  pre- 
decessors u'eut  right  or  wrong,  who  is  capable  of  a  judgement  independent  of  theirs. 
But  with  what  shameful  servility  have  many  false  or  faulty  definitions  and  rules  been 
copied  and  copied  from  one  grammar  to  another,  as  if  authority  had  canonized  their 
errors,  or  none  had  eyes  to  see  them !  "Whatsoever  is  dignified  and  fair,  is  also  modest 
and  reasonable  ;  but  modesty  does  not  consist  in  having  no  opinion  of  one's  own,  nor 
reason  in  following  with  blind  partiality  the  footsteps  of  others.  Grammar  unsup- 
ported by  authority,  is  indeed  mere  fiction.  But  what  apology  is  this^  for  that  author- 
ehip  which  has  produced  so  many  grammars  without  originality?  Shall  ho  who  can- 
not write  for  himself,  improve  upon  him  who  can?  It  is  not  deference  to  merit,  but 
impudent  pretence,  practising  on  the  credulity  of  ignorance!  Commonness  alone 
exempts  it  from  scrutin}',  and  the  success  it  has,  is  but  the  wages  of  its  own  worth- 
Icssness!  To  read  and  be  informed,  is  to  mrke  a  proper  use  of  books  for  the  advance- 
ment of  learning;  but  to  assume  to  be  an  a  /hor  by  editing  mere  commonplaces  and 
stolen  criticisms,  is  equally  beneath  the  ambition  cf  a  scholar  and  the  honesty  of  a 
man. 

10.  Grammar  being  a  practical  art,  with  the  principles  of  which  every  intelligent 
person  is  more  or  less  acquainted,  it  might  be  expected  that  a  hook  written  professedly 
on  the  subject,  should  exhibit  some  evidence  of  its  author's  skill.  But  it  would  seeia 
that  a  multitude  of  bad  or  indifferent  writers  have  judged  themselves  qualified  to 
teach  the  art  of  spealaug  and  writing  well ;  so  that  correctness  of  language  and  neat- 
ness of  style  are  as  rarely  to  be  found  in  grammars  as  in  Ather  books.  There  have 
been,  however,  several  excellent  scholars,  who  have  thought  it  an  object  not  unworthy 
of  their  talents,  to  prescribe  and  elucidate  the  principles  of  English  Grammar.  But 
these,  for  an  obvious  reason,  have  executed  their  designs  with  various  degrees  of  suc- 
cess ;  and  even  the  most  meritorious  have  left  ample  room  for  improvement,  though 
some  have  evinced  an  ability  which  does  honour  to  themselves,  while  it  gives  cause 
to  regret  their  lack  of  an  inducement  to  fiu-ther  labour.  The  mere  grammarian  can 
neither  aspire  to  praise,  nor  stipulate  for  a  reward ;  and  to  those  who  were  best  quali- 
fied to  write,  the  subject  could  offer  no  adequate  motive  lor  diligence. 

11.  Having  devoted  many  yeai-s  to  studies  of  this  nature,  and  being  conversant  with 
most  of  the  grammatical  treatises  already  published,  the  author  conceived  that  the 
objects  above  enumerated,  might,  perhaps,  be  better  effected  than  they  had  been  in 
any  work  within  his  knowledge.  And  he  persuades  himself  that  the  improvements 
here  otlered,  are  neither  few  nor  inconsiderable.  He  does  not  mean,  however,  to  de- 
preciate the  labours,  or  to  detract  from  the  merits  of  those  who  have  gone  before  him 
and  taught  with  acknowledged  skill.  He  has  studiously  endeavoured  to  avail  himself 
ef  all  the  light  they  have  thrown  upon  the  suljject.  For  5iis  own  information,  he  has 
carefully  perused  more  than  two  hundred  English  grammars,  and  has  glanced  over 
many  others  that  were  not  worth  reading.  With  this  publication  in  view,  he  has  also 
resorted  to  the  original  sources  of  grammatical  knowledge,  and  has  not  only  critically 
considered  what  he  has  seen  and  heard  of  our  vernacular  tongue,  but  has  sought  with 
Bome  diligence  the  analogies  of  speech  in  the  structure  of  several  other  languages. 

1-.  His  prstgress  in  compiling  this  work  has  been  slow,  and  not  unattended  with 
labour  and  difficulty.  Amidst  the  contrarieties  of  opinion,  that  appear  in  the  various 
treatises  already  before  tlie  public,  and  the  perplexities  inseparable  from  so  complicated 
a  subject,  he  has,  after  deliberate  consideration,  adopted  those  views  .ind  explanations 
■which  appeared  to  him  the  least  liable  to  objection,  and  the  most  compatible  -with  his 
ultimate  object — the  production  of  a  practical  school  grannnar. 

18.  Ambitious  of  making  not  a  large  but  an  acceptable  book,  he  has  compressed  int» 
this  volume  the  most  essential  parts  of  a  mass  of  materials  from  which  ho  could  as 
easily  have  formed  a  folio.  Whether  the  toil  be  compensated  or  not,  is  a  matter  of 
little  consequence  ;  he  has  neitlier  written  for  bread,  nor  built  castles  in  the  air.  Me 
ifi  too  wCU  versed  ia  the  history  of  his  theme,  too  well  aware  of  the  precarious  fortune 


PREFACE.  y 

of  ailtTiorfi,  to  imlulge  any  cnnfuloiit  nnticipatioiiK  of  Riircess  ;  yet  liP  T^'ill  not  dony  (liat 
his  hopes  are  large,  being  conKcious  of  having  cherislied  tlicm  with  a  liherality  of  fc-cl- 
ing  wliich  cannot  fear  disappointment.  In  this  temper  he  wouhi  invite  the  render  to 
a  thorough  perusal  of  tlie  following  pages.  A  grammar  should  speak  for  itself  Jn  a 
work  of  this  nature,  every  word  or  tittle  whieli  does  not  recommend  the  perfoimnnce 
to  the  understanding  and  taste  of  the  skillful,  is,  so  far  as  it  goes,  a  certificate  against 
it.  Yet,  if  some  small  errors  have  escaped  detection,  let  it  he  recollected  that  it  is  al- 
most impossible  to  print  with  perfect  accuracy  a  work  of  this  size,  in  which  so  many 
little  things  should  be  observed,  remembered,  and  made  exactly  to  correspond.  There 
is  no  human  vigilance  which  multiplicity  may  not  sometimes  baffle,  and  minntentfs 
sometimeK  elude.  To  most  persons  grammar  seems  a  dry  mid  difBcult  subject ;  but 
tliere  is  a  disposition  of  mind,  to  which  what  is  arduous,  is  for  that  very  reason  allu- 
ring. The  ditticulties  encountered  in  boyhood  from  the  use  of  a  miserable  epilcn;e, 
and  the  deep  impression  of  a  few  mortifying  blunders  made  in  public,  first  gave  tho 
author  a  fondness  for  grammar;  circumstances  having  since  favoured  this  turn  of  his 
genius,  ho  has  voluntarily  pursued  the  study,  with  au  assiduity  vdiich  no  man  will  ever 
imitate  for  the  «ake  of  pecuniary  recompen.-e. 

14.  This  work  contains  a  full  series  of  exercises  adapted  to  its  several  parts,  with 
notices  of  the  manner  in  which  they  are  to  be  used,  according  to  the  place  assigned 
them.  The  examples  of  false  syntax  placed  under  the  n:lcs,  are  to  be  corrected  oral- 
iy;  the  four  chapters  of  exercises  adapted  to  the  four  parts  of  the  subject,  are  to  be 
written  out  by  the  learner.  In  selecting  examples  for  thef^e  exercises,  the  author  has 
been  studious  to  economize  the  learner's  and  the  teacher's  time,  by  adrr.itting  those 
only  which  were  very  short.  He  has,  in  general,  reduced  each  example  to  a  single 
line.  And,  in  this  manner,  he  has  been  able  to  present,  in  this  email  volume,  a  series 
of  exercises,  more  various  than  are  given  in  any  other  grammar,  aiul  nearly  equal  in 
number  to  all  that  are  contained  in  Murray's  two  octavoes.  It  is  believed  thata  gram- 
matical treatise  at  once  bo  comprehensive  and  concise,  has  not  before  been  offered  to 
the  public. 

15.  The  only  successful  method  of  teaching  grammar,  is,  to  cause  the  principal  defi- 
nitions and  rules  to  be  committed  thoroughly  to  menioi'y,  that  they  may  ever  after- 
wards be  readily  applied.  Oral  instruction  may  smooth  the  way,  and  facilitate  tho 
labour  of  the  learner;  but  the  notion  of  communicating  a  competent  knowledge  of 
grammar  witliout  imposing  this  task,  is  disproved  by  univerfal  experience.  Nor  will 
it  avail  any  thing  lor  the  student  to  rehearse  definitions  and  rules  of  which  he  makes 
no  practical  application.  In  etymology  and  syntax,  he  should  be  alternately  exercised 
in  learning  small  portions  of  his  hook,  and  then  applying  them  in  itarsing,  till  the 
■whole  is  rendered  familiar.  To  a  good  reader,  the  achievement  will  be  neither  great 
nor  difficult;  and  the  exercise  is  well  calculated  to  improve  the  memory,  and  strength- 
en all  the  faculties  of  the  mind. 

16.  The  mode  of  instruction  hero  recommended  is  the  result  of  long  and  successful 
experience.  There  is  nothing  in  it,  which  any  person  of  common  abilities  will  find  it 
diiticult  to  understand  or  adopt.  It  is  the  plain  didactic  method  of  definition  and  ex- 
ample, rule  and  praxis;  which  no  man  who  means  to  teach  grammar  well,  will  ever 
desert,  with  the  hope  of  finding  an  other  more  rational  or  more  easy.  The  book  itself 
will  make  any  one  a  granimavian,  vriio  ■\7ill  take  the  trouble  to  observe  and  practise 
what  it  teaches  ;  and  even  if  some  iustructors  should  not  adopt  the  readiest  and  most 
eflicient  method  of  making  their  pupils  familiar  with  its  contents,  they  will  not  fail  to 
instruct  by  it  as  effectually  as  they  can  by  any  other.  "Whoever  is  acquainted  with 
the  grammar  of  our  language,  so  as  to  have  some  tolerable  ekill  in  teaching  it,  will 
here  find  almost  every  thing  that  is  true  in  his  own  instructions,  clearly  embraced 
under  its  proper  head,  so  as  to  be  easy  of  reference.  And  perhaps  there  are  few,  how- 
ever learned,  who,  on  a  periisal  of  the  volume,  would  not  be  furnished  with  some  im- 
portant rules  and  facts  which  had  not  before  occurred  to  their  own  observation. 

IT.  The  greatest  peculiarity  of  the  method  is,  that  it  requires  the  pupil  to  speak  or 
write  a  great  deal,  and  the  teacher  very  little.  But  both  should  constantly  rtnitniber 
that  grammar  is  the  art  of  speaking  and  writing  well;  an  art  which  can  no  more  bo 
acquired  without  practice  than  that  of  dancing  or  swimming.  And  each  should  be 
careful  to  perform  his  part  handsomely — without  drawling,  omitting,  stopping,  hesita- 
ting, faltering,  miscalling,  reiterating,  stuttering,  hurrying,  slurring,  mouthing,  mis- 
quoting, mispronouncing,  or  any  of  the  thousand  faults  which  render  utterance  dis- 
agreeable and  inelegant.  It  is  the  learner's  diction  that  is  to  be  improved  ;  and  the 
system  will  be  found  well  calculated  to  eft'ect  that  object ;  because  it  demands  of  him, 
not  only  to  answer  questions  on  grammar,  but  also  to  make  a  prompt  and  practical 
application  of  what  he  has  just  learned.  If  the  class  be  tolerable  readers,  it  will  not 
be  necessary  for  the  teacher  to  say  much ;  and,  in  general,  he  ought  not  to  take  up 
the  time  by  so  doing.  He  should,  however,  carefully  superintend  their  rehearsals ; 
give  the  word  to  the  next,  when  any  one  errs ;  and  order  the  exercise  in  such  a  man- 
ner that  either  his  own  voice,  or  the  example  of  his  best  scholars,  may  gradually  cor- 
rect the  ill  habits  of  the  awkward,  till  all  learn  to  recite  with  clearness,  understanding 
well  what  they  say,  and  making  it  intelligible  to  others. 

18.  The  exercise  of  parsing  commences  immediately  after  the  first  lesson  of  etymol- 
ogy, and  is  carried  on  progressively  till  it  embraces  all  the  doctrines  that  are  aj)plio»i 

1* 


Ti 


PREFACE. 


ble  to  ft.  If  it  be  perfofnied  according  to  the  order  prescribed,  it  will  soon  malce  the 
student  perfectly  familiar  witti  all  the  primary  definitions  and  rules  of  grammar.  IS 
requires  j  sst  enough  of  thought  to  keep  the  mind  attentive  to  what  the  lips  are  utter- 
ing ;  while  it  advances  by  such  easy  gradations  and  constant  repetitions  as  leave  tho 
pupil  utterly  without  excuse,  if  he  does  not  know  what  to  say.  Being  neither  wholly 
extemporaneous  nor  wholly  rehcai'sed  by  rote,  it  has  more  dignity  than  a  school-boy' 9 
conversation,  and  more  ease  than  a  formal  recitation,  or  declamation  ;  and  is  thereforo 
an  exercise  well  calculated  to  induce  a  habit  of  uniting  correctness  with  fluency  in  or- 
dinary speech— a  species  of  elocution  as  valuable  as  any  other. 

19.  The  best  instruction  is  that  which  ultimately  gives  the  greatest  facility  and  skill 
in  practice ;  and  grammar  is  best  taught  by  that  process  whicli  brings  its  doctrines 
most  d-rectly  home  to  the  habits  as  well  as  to  the  thoughts  of  the  pupil— which  the 
most  effrtctftally  conquers  inattention,  and  leaves  the  deepest  impress  of  shame  upoa 
blundering  ignorance.  In  tlie  whole  range  of  school  exercises,  there  is  none  of  greater 
importance  than  tliat  of  parsing ;  and  yet  perhaps  there  is  none  whicli  is,  in  general, 
more  defectively  conducted.  Scarcely  less  useful,  as  a  means  of  instruction,  is  th« 
practice  of  correcting'  false  syntax  orally,  by  regular  and  logical  forms  of  argument; 
nor  does  this  appear  to  have  been  more  ably  directed  towards  the  purposes  of  disci- 
pline. There  is  so  much  to  be  done,  in  order  to  effect  what  is  desirable  in  the  man- 
agement of  these  things ;  and  so  little  prospect  that  education  will  ever  be  generally 
raised  to  a  just  appreciation  of  that  study  which,  more  than  all  others,  forms  the  mind 
to  habits  of  correct  thinking ;  that,  in  reflecting  upon  the  state  of  the  science  at  the 
present  time,  and  upon  the  means  of  its  improvement,  the  author  cannot  but  sympa- 
thize, in  some  degi-ee,  with  tlie  sadness  of  the  learned  Sanctius ;  who  tells  us,  that  ho 
had  "always lamented,  and  often  with  tears,  that  while  other  branches  of  learning 
were  excellently  taught,  grammar,  which  is  the  foundation  of  all  others,  lay  so  mucU 
neglected,  and  that  for  this  neglect  there  seemed  to  bo  no  adequate  remedy." — Pref.  to 
Minerva.  The  grammatical  use  of  language  is  in  sweet  alliance  with  the  moral ;  and  a 
similar  regret  seems  to  have  prompted  the  following  exclamation  of  the  Christian  poet: 

"  Sacred  Interpreter  of  human  thought. 
How  few  respect  or  use  thee  as  they  ought  1" — Coivper. 

20.  No  directions,  either  oral  or  written,  can  ever  enable  the  heedless  and  the  un- 
thinking to  speak  or  write  well.  Tliat  must  indeed  be  an  admirable  book,  which  can 
attract  levity  to  sober  reflection,  teach  thoughtlessness  the  true  meaning  of  words, 
raise  vulgarity  from  its  fondness  for  low  examples,  awaken  the  spirit  which  attains  to 
excellency  of  speech,  and  cause  grammatical  exercises  to  be  skillfully  managed,  where 
teachers  themselves  are  so  often  lamentably  deficient  in  tliera.  Yet  something  may 
be  effected  by  means  of  a  better  book,  if  a  better  can  be  introduced.  And  what  with- 
stands?—Wiiatever  there  is  of  ignorance  or  error  in  relation  to  the  premises.  And  i3 
it  arrogant  to  say  there  is  much?  Alas!  in  regard  to  this,  as  well  as  to  many  a 
weightier  matter,  one  may  too  truly  aftirm,  Multa  non  sunt  tsicut  multis  videntur — 
Many  things  are  not  as  they  seem  to  many.  Common  errors  are  apt  to  conceal  them- 
selves from  the  common  mind;  and  the  appeal  to  reason  and  just  authority  is  often 
frustrated,  because  a  wrong  head  defies  both.  But,  apart  from  this,  there  are  difficul- 
ties: multiplicity  perplexes  choice ;  inconvenience  attends  change;  improvement  I'e- 
qulres  effort ;  confiicting  tlicories  demand  examination ;  the  principles  of  tho  scienca 
are  unprofitably  disputed ;  the  end  is  often  divorced  from  the  means ;  and  much  that 
belies  the  title,  has  been  publislied  under  the  name. 

21.  It  is  certain,  that  the  printed  formularies  most  commonly  furnished  for  the  im- 
portant exercises  of  parsing  and  correcting,  are  eitlier  so  awkwardly  written,  or  so 
negligently  followed,  as  to  make  grammar,  in  the  mouths  of  our  juvenile  orators,  littlo 
else  than  a  crude  and  faltering  jargon.  Murray  evidently  intended  that  his  book  of 
exercises  should  be  constantly  used  with  liis  grammar ;  but  ho  made  the  examples  in 
the  former  so  dull  and  prolix,  that  few  learners,  if  any,  have  ever  gone  through  the 
series  agreeably  to  his  direction.  Tlie  publisliing  of  them  in  a  separate  volume,  has 
proljably  given  rise  to  the  absurd  practice  of  endeavouring  to  teach  his  grammar  with- 
out them.  The  forms  of  parsing  and  correcting  which  this  author  furnisiies,  are  also 
misplaced ;  and  when  found  by  the  learner,  are  of  littlo  use.  They  are  so  verbose, 
awkward,  irregular,  and  deficient,  that  the  pupil  must  be  a  dull  boy,  or  utterly  igno- 
rant of  grammar,  if  ho  cannot  express  the  facts  extemporaneously  in  better  Engli.nh, 
When  we  consider  how  exceedingly  important  it  is,  that  the  business  of  a  school 
should  proceed  without  loss  of  time,  and  that,  in  the  oral  exercises  here  spoken  of, 
each  pupil  should  go  through  his  part  promptly,  clearly,  correctly,  and  fully,  we  can- 
not think  it  a  light  objection  that  these  forms,  so  often  to  be  repeated,  are  badly  writ- 
ten. Nor  does  the  objection  lie  against  this  writer  only :  Ab  uno  disce  onines.  But 
the  reader  may  demand  some  illustrations. 

22.  First — from  his  etymological  parsing:  "O  Virtue  1  how  amiable  thou  art!" 
Here  his  form  for  the  word  Virtue  is — "  Virtue  is  a  common  substantive  of  the  neuter 
gender,  of  the  third  person,  in  the  singular  number,  and  the  nominative  case."  It 
should  have  been — "  Virtue  is  a  common  7wun,  -personified  proper,  of  the  secoiulper- 
aon,  singular  numher,  feminine  gender,  and  nominative  case."  And,  then  tho  defini- 
tions of  all  these  things  should  have  followed  in  regular  numerioal  order.     He  givea 


PREFACE.  Vii 

ilie  claflB  of  this  noun  wrong,  for  virtue  addressed  becornefl  an  individual ;  he  gires  tho 
gender  wrong,  and  in  direct  contradiction  of  what  he  sayH  of  the  word,  in  his  section 
on  gender;  lie  gives  the  (icTson  wrong,  as  may  be  seen  by  the  pronoun  thou;  he  re- 
peats the  definite  article  three  times  unnecessarily,  and  inserts  two  needless  preposi- 
tions, making  them  different  where  the  relation  is  precisely  the  same:  and  all  this,  in 
a  sentence  of  two  linos,  to  tell  tlie  properties  of  the  noun  Virtue ! — But,  in  etymological 
parsing,  the  definitions  explaining  the  properties  of  the  parts  of  speech,  ought  lo  be 
regularly  and  rapidly  rehearsed  by  the  pupil,  till  all  of  them  are  perfectly  familiar, 
and  till  he  can  discern,  with  the  quickness  of  thought,  what  is  true  or  false  in  the  de- 
scription of  any  word  in  any  intelligible  sentence.  All  these  the  author  omits;  and, 
on  account  of  this  omission,  his  whole  method  of  etymological  parsing  is  miserably  de- 
ficient. 

23.  Secondly — from  his  syntactical  parsing:  '■'Vice  degrades  us."  Here  his  form 
for  the  word  Vice  is — "  Vice  is  a  common  substantive  of  the  third  person,  in  the  sin- 
gular number,  and  the  nominative  case."  Now,  when  the  learner  is  told  that  this  is 
the  syntactical  parsing  of  a  noun,  and  the  other  the  etymological,  he  will  of  course  con- 
clude, that  to  advance  from  the  etymology  to  the  syntax  of  this  part  of  speech,  is 
merely  to  omit  the  gender — this  being  the  only  difference  between  the  two  forms.  But 
even  this  ditference  had  no  other  origin  ihan  the  compiler's  carelessness  in  preparing 
his  octavo  book  of  exercises — the  gender  being  inserted  in  the  duodecimo.  And  what 
then?  Is  the  syntactical  parsing  of  a  noun  to  be  precisely  the  same  as  the  etymologi- 
cal? Never.  I5ut  Murray,  and  all  who  admire  and  follow  his  work,  are  content  to 
parse  many  words  by  halves — making  a  distinction,  and  yet  often  omitting,  in  both 
parts  of  the  exercise,  every  thing  which  constitutes  the  difference.  He  should  here 
have  said — "  Vice  is  a  common  noun  of  the  third  person,  singular  number,  neuter  gen- 
der, and  nominative  case :  and  is  the  subject  of  degrades;  according  to  the  rule  which 
says,  'A  noun  or  a  pronoun  which  is  the  subject  of  a  verb,  must  be  in  the  noniinativa 
case.'  Because  the  meaning  is — vice  degrades."  This  is  the  whole  description  of  the 
word,  with  its  construction ;  and  to  say  less,  is  to  leave  the  matter  unfinished. 

24.  Thirdly — from  his  "  mode  of  verbally  correcting  erroneous  sentences:  'The  man 
is  prudent  which  speaks  little.'  This  sentence,"  says  Murray,  "is  incorrect;  because 
lohich  is  a  pronoun  of  the  neuter  gender,  and  does  not  agree  in  gender  with  its  antece- 
dent 'man,  which  is  masculine.  But  a  pronoun  should  agree  with  its  antecedent  in 
gender,  &c.,  according  to  the  fifth  rule  of  syntax.  Which  should  tlwrefore  be  who,  a 
relative  pronoun,  agreeing  with  its  antecedent  Tnan;  and  the  sentence  should  stand 
thus:  'The  man  is  prudent  who  speaks  little.'  "  Again:  "  'After  I  visited  Europe,  I 
returned  to  America.'  This  sentence,"  says  he,  "is  not  correct;  because  the  verb 
visited  is  in  the  imperfect  tense,  and  yet  used  here  to  express  an  action,  not  only  past, 
but  prior  to  the  time  referred  to  by  the  verb  returned,  to  which  it  relates.  By  tho 
thirteenth  rule  of  syntax,  when  verbs  are  used  that,  in  point  of  time,  relate  to  each 
other,  the  order  of  time  should  be  observed.  The  imperfect  tense  visited,  should 
therefore  have  been  had  visited,  in  the  pluperfect  tense,  representing  the  action  of 
visiting,  not  only  as  past,  but  also  as  prior  to  the  time  of  returning.  The  sentejice 
corrected  would  stand  thus:  'After  I  liad  w'sited  Europe,  I  returned  to  America."  " 
These  are  the  first  two  examples  of  Murray's  verbal  corrections,  and  the  only  ones  re- 
tained by  Alger,  in  his  improwed,  recopij -righted  edition  of  Murray's  Exercises.  Yet, 
in  each  of  them,  is  the  argumentation  palpably  false  1  In  the  former,  truly,  which 
should  be  who;  but  not  because  ivhich  is  of  the  neuter  gender ;  but  because  the  appli- 
cation of  that  relative  to  persons,  is  now  nearly  obsolete.  Can  any  grammarian  for- 
get ^hat,  in  speaking  of  brute  animals,  male  or  female,  we  commonly  use  which,  and 
never  who  f  But  if  which  must  needs  be  neuter,  the  world  is  wrong  in  this. — As  for 
the  latter  example,  it  is  right  as  it  stands:  and  the  correction  is,  in  some  sort,  tauto- 
logical. The  conjunctive  adverb  after  makes  one  of  the  actions  subsequent  to  tha 
other,  and  gives  to  tlie  visiting  all  the  priority  that  is  signified  by  the  pluperfect 
tense.  '■'After  I  visited  Europe,"  is  equivalent  to  "  lF/i«>i  I  had  msited  Europe." 
The  whole  argument  is  therefore  void. 

25.  These  few  brief  illustrations,  out-of  thousands  that  might  be  adduced  in  proof  of 
thefaultiness  of  the  common  manuals,  the  author  has  reluctantly  introduced,  to  show 
that,  even  in  the  most  popular  books,  the  grammar  of  our  language  has  not  been  treat- 
ed with  that  care  and  ability  which  its  importance  demands.  It  is  hardly  to  be  sup- 
posed that  men  unused  to  a  teacher's  duties,  can  be  qualified  to  compose  such  books 
as  will  most  facilitate  his  labours.  Practice  is  a  better  pilot  than  theory.  And  while, 
in  respect  to  grammar,  the  evidences  of  failure  are  constantly  inducing  changes  from 
one  system  to  another,  and  almost  daily  giving  birth  to  new  expedients  as  constantly 
to  end  in  the  same  disappointment;  perhaps  the  practical  instructions  of  an  expe- 
rienced teacher,  long  and  assiduously  devoted  to  the  study,  may  approve  themselves 
to  many,  as  seasonably  supplying  tho  aid  and  guidance  which  they  require. 

26.  From  the  doctrines  of  grammar,  novelty  is  rigidly  excluded.  They  consist  of 
details  to  which  taste  can  lend  no  charm,  and  genius  no,  embeUishment.  A  writer  may 
express  them  with  neatness  and  perspiouity^-tiieir  importance  alone  can  eomnicml 
them  to  notice.  Yet,  in  drawing  hisi  illustrations  from  the  stores  of  litei"ature,  tlie 
grammarian  may  select  some  goras  of  thought,  whicli  will  fasten  on  the  memcvy  a 


Vlll  '  PREFACE. 

TTOrthy  sentiment,  or  relieve  the  dullness  of  miuiite  Instruction.     Such  examples  havo 
been  taken  from  various  authors,  and  interspersed  through  thj  following  pages. 

27.  The  moral  effect  of  early  lessons  being  a  point  of  the  utmost  importance,  it  is  es- 
pecially incumbent  on  all  those  wlio  are  endeavouring  to  confer  the  benefits  of  intel- 
lectual culture,  to  guard  against  the  admission  or  the  inculcation  of  any  principle  which 
may  have  an  improper  tendency,  and  be  ultimately  prejudicial  to  those  whom  they  in- 
struct. In  preparing  this  treatise  for  publication,  the  author  has  been  solicitous  to 
avoid  every  thing  that  could  be  offensive  to  the  most  delicate  and  scrupulous  reader ; 
and,  of  the  several  thousands  of  quotations  given,  he  trusts  that  the  greater  part  will 
be  considered  valuable  on  account  of  the  sentiments  they  contain. 

28.  He  has  not  thought  it  needful,  in  a  work  of  this  kind,  to  encumber  his  pages- 
■with  a  useless  parade  of  names  and  references,  or  to  distinguish  very  minutely  what  is 
copied  and  what  is  original.  All  strict  definitions  of  the  same  thing  are  necessarily 
similar.  The  doctrines  of  the  work  are,  for  the  most  part,  expressed  in  his  own  lan- 
guage, and  illustrated  by  that  of  others.  Where  authority  was  requisite,  names  have 
been  inserted ;  and  in  general  also  where  there  was  room.  In  the  doctrinal  parts  of 
the  volume,  not  only  quotations  from  others,  but  most  examples  made  for  the  occixsion, 
are  marked  with  guillemets,  to  distinguish  them  from  the  main  text;  while,  to  al- 
most every  thing  which  is  really  taken  from  any  other  known  writer,  a  name  or  refer- 
ence is  added.  In  the  exercises  for  correction,  few  references  have  been  given ;  be- 
cause it  is  no  credit  to  any  author,  to  have  written  bad  English.  But  the  intelligent 
reader  will  recognize  as  quotations  a  large  portion  of  the  examples,  and  know  from 
what  works  they  are  taken.  To  the  school-boy  this  knowledge  is  neither  important 
nor  interesting 

29.  Many  of  the  definitions  and  rules  of  grammar  have  so  long  been  public  property, 
and  have  been  printed  under  eo  many  names,  that  it  is  dilKcult,  if  not  impossible,  to 
know  to  whom  they  originally  Ijelonged.  Of  these  the  author  has  freely  availed  him- 
eelf,  though  seldom  without  some  amendment ;  while  he  has  carefully  abstained  from 
every  thing  on  which  ho  supposed  there  could  now  be  any  individual  claim.  He  haa 
therefore  fewer  personal  obligations  to  acknowledge,  than  most  of  those  who  are  re- 
puted to  have  written  with  sufficient  originality  on  the  subject. 

30.  In  truth,  not  a  line  has  here  beeucopied  with  any  view  to  save  the  labour  of  com- 
position; for,  not  to  compile  an  English  grammar  from  others  already  extant,  but  to 
compose  one  more  directly  from  the  sources  of  tlie  art,  was  the  bisk  which  the  writer 
proposed  to  himself.  And  tliough  the  theme  is  not  one  upon  which  a  man  may  hope 
to  write  well  with  little  reflection,  it  is  true,  th;tt  tlie  parts  of  this  treatise  which  have 
cost  him  the  most  labour,  are  those  which  '.'  consist  chiefly  of  materials  selected  from 
the  writings  of  others."  These,  however,  arc  not  the  didactical  portions  of  the  book, 
but  the  proofs  and  examples;  which,  according  to  the  custom  of  the  cncient  gramma- 
rians, ought  to  be  taken  from  other  authors.  But  so  much  have  the  makers  of  our 
modern  grammars  been  allowed  to  presume  upon  *lie  respect  and  acquiescence  of  their 
readers,  that  the  ancient  exactncKS  on  this  point  w  ould  often  appear  pedantic.  Many 
phrases  and  sentences  eitiier  original  or  anonymous  will  therefore  be  found  among  tha 
illustrations  of  the  following  work ;  for  it  was  not  supposed  that  any  reader  would  de- 
mand for  every  thing  of  this  kind  the  authority  of  a  great  name.  Anonymous  exam- 
ples are  sutlicient  to  elucidate  principles,  if  not  to  establish  them;  and  elucidation  is 
often  the  sole  purpose  for  whicli  an  example  is  needed. 

31.  The  author  is  well  aware  that  no  writer  on  grammar  haa  any  right  to  propose 
himself  as  autliority  for  what  he  teaches ;  for  every  language,  being  tlie  common  prop- 
erty of  all  who  use  it,  ought  to  be  carefully  guarded  against  any  caprice  of  individuals, 
and  especially  against  that  which  might  attempt  to  impose  erroneous  or  arbitrary  defi- 
nitions and  rules.  "Since  the  matter  of  which  we  are  treating,"  says  the  philologist 
of  Salamanca,  "is  to  be  verified,  first  by  reason,  and  then  by  testimony  and  usage, 
none  ought  to  wonder  if  we  sometimes  deviate  from  the  track  of  great  men ;  for,  with 
■whatever  authority  any  grammarian  may  weigh  with  me,  unless  he  shall  have  con- 
firmed his  assertions  by  reason  and  also  by  examples,  he  shall  win  no  confidence  in 
respect  to  grammar.  For,  as  Seneca  says,  Epistle  95,  '  Grammarians  are  the  guard- 
ia7is,  not  the  authors,  of  language.'  "—Minerva,  Lib.  i,  Cap.  ii.  Yet,  as  what  is  in- 
tuitively seen  to  be  true  or  false,  is  already  sufficiently  proved  or  detected,  many 
points  in  grammar  need  nothing  more  than  to  be  clearly  stated  and  illustrated  ;  nay,  it 
would  seem  an  injurious  reflection  on  the  understanding  of  the  reader,  to  accumulate 
proofs  of  what  cannot  but  be  evident  to  all  who  speak  the  language. 

3'2.  Among  men  of  the  same  profession,  there  is  an  unavoidable  rivalry,  so  far  aa 
they  become  competitors  for  the  same  jirize  ;  but  in  competition  there  is  nothing  dis- 
honourable, while  excellence  alone  obtains  distinction,  and  no  advantage  is  sought  by 
unfair  means.  It  is  evident  that  we  ought  to  account  him  the  best  grarainarian,  who 
has  the  most  completely  executed  the  worthiest  design.  But  no  worthy  design  can 
need  a  false  apology ;  and  it  is  worse  than  idle  to  prevaricate.  That  is  but  a  spurious 
modesty,  which  prompts  a  man  to  disclaim  in  one  way  what  he  assumes  in  an  other 
. — or  to  underrate  the  duties  of  his  office,  that  he  may  boast  of  having  "  done  all  that 
could  reasonably  be  expected."  Whoever  professes  to  have  improved  the  science  of 
English  grammar,  must  claim  to  know  more  of  the  matter  than  the  generality  of  Eng- 
lish grammariana ;  and  he  who  begins  with  saying  that  "little  can  be  expected"  from 


PREFACE.  iX 

the  office  he  assumes,  must  be  wrongfully  contradicted  when  he  is  held  to  have  dona 
much.  Neither  tlio  ordinary  power  of  speech,  nor  even  tlie  ability  to  write  respecta- 
bly on  common  topics,  makes  a  man  a  critic  among  critics,  or  enables  him  to  judge  of 
literary  merit.  And  if,  by  virtue  of  these  qualifications  alone,  a  man  will  become  a 
giamuiarian  or  a  connoisseur,  he  can  hold  the  rank  only  by  courtesy— a  courtesy 
which  is  content  to  degrade  the  character,  that  his  inferior  preteusions  may  bo  ac- 
cepted and  honoured  under  the  name. 

33.  By  the  force  of  a  late  popular  example,  ptill  too  widely  influential,  grammatical 
authorship  has  been  reduced  in  tlie  view  of  many,  to  little  or  nothing  more  than  a 
mere  serving-up  of  materials  anonymously  borrowed ;  and,  what  is  most  remarkable, 
even  for  an  indifferent  performance  of  this  low  ottice,  not  only  unnamed  reviewers, 
but  several  writers  of  note,  have  not  scrupled  to  bestow  the  highest  praise  of  gram- 
matical excellence!  And  thus  the  palm  of  superior  skill  in  grammar,  has  been  borne 
away  by  a. ])ro/esised  compiler;  who  had  bo  mean  an  opinion  of  what  his  theme  re- 
quired, as  to  deny  it  even  the  common  courtesies  of  compilation.  What  marvel  is  it, 
that,  under  the  wing  of  such  authority,  many  writers  have  since  sprung  up,  to  im. 
prove  upon  this  most  happy  design  :  while  all  who  were  competent  to  the  task,  have 
been  discouraged  from  attempting  any  thing  like  a  complete  grammar  of  our  lan- 
guage? What,  motive  shall  excite  a  man  to  long-continued  diligence,  where  such  no- 
tions prevail  as  give  inastersliip  no  hope  of  preference,aud  where  the  praise  of  his  inge- 
nuity and  the  reward  of  his  labour  must  needs  be  inconsiderable,  till  some  honoured 
compiler  usurp  them  both,  and  bring  his  "most  useful  matter"  before  the  world  un- 
der better  auspices?  If  the  lovfe  of  learning  supply  such  a  motive,  who  that  has  gen- 
erously yielded  to  the  impulse,  will  not  now,  like  Johnson,  feel  himself  reduced  to  an 
"humble  drudge" — or,  like  Perizonius,  apologize  for  the  apparent  folly  of  devoting 
his  time  to  such  a  subject  as  grammar? 

34.  Since  the  first  edition  of  this  work,  more  than  two  hundred  new  compcnds, 
many  of  them  professing  to  be  abstract.'^  of  Murray  with  improvements,  have  been 
added  to  our  list  of  English  grammars.  The  author  has  examined  about  one  hundred 
and  fifty,  and  seen  advertisements  or  notices  of  nearly  half  as  many  more.  Being  va- 
rious in  character,  they  will  of  course  be  variously  estimated;  but,  so  far  as  he  can 
judge,  they  are,  without  exception,  works  of  littl:  or  no  real  merit,  and  not  likely  to 
be  much  patronized  or  long  preserved  from  oblivion.  For  which  reason,  lie  would 
have  been  inclined  entirely  to  disregard  the  petty  depredations  which  the  writers  of 
several  of  them  have  committed  upon  the  following  digest,  were  it  not  possible  that 
by  such  a  frittering-away  of  his  work  ho  himself  might  one  day  seem  to  some  to  have 
copied  that  from  others  which  was  first  taken  from  him.  Trusting  to  make  it  mani- 
fest to  men  of  learning,  that  in  the  production  of  these  Institutes  far  more  has  been 
done  for  the  grammar  of  our  language,  than  any  single  hand  had  before  achieved 
within  the  limits  of  a  school-book,  and  that  with  perfect  fairness  towards  other 
writers ;  he  cannot  but  feel  a  wish  that  the  integrity  of  his  text  should  be  preserved, 
whatever  else  may  befall;  and  that  the  multitude  of  scribblers  who  judge  it  so  need- 
ful to  remodel  Murray's  defective  compilation,  would  forbear  to  publish  under  his 
name  or  their  own  what  they  find  only  in  the  following  pages. 

35.  The  mere  rivalry  of  their  authorship  is  no  subject  of  concern;  but  it  is  enough 
for  any  ingenuous  man  to  have  toiled  lor  years  in  solitude  to  coii'plete  a  work  of  pub- 
lic utility,  without  entering  a  warfare  for  life  to  defend  and  preserve  it.  Accidental 
coincidences  in  books  are  unfrequent,  and  not  often  such  as  to  excite  the  suspicion  of 
the  most  sensitive.  But,  though  the  criteria  of  plagiarism  arc  neither  obscure  nor  dis- 
putable, it  is  not  easy,  in  this  beaten  track  of  literature,  for  persons  of  little  reading  to 
know  what  is,  or  is  not,  original.  Dates  must  be  accurately  observed.  Many  things 
must  be  minutely  compared.  And  who  will  undertake  such  a  task,  but  he  that  is  per- 
sonally  interested  ?  Of  the  thousands  who  are  forced  into  the  paths  of  learning,  few 
ever  care  to  know,  by  what  pioneer,  or  with  what  labour,  their  way  was  cast  up  for 
them.  And  even  of  those  who  are  honestly  engaged  in  teaching,  not  many  are  ade- 
quate judges  of  the  comparative  merits  of  the  great  number  of  books  on  this  subject. 
The  common  notions  of  mankind  conform  more  easily  to  fashion  than  to  truth;  and, 
even  of  some  things  within  their  reach,  the  majority  seem  content  to  take  their  opin- 
ions upon  trust.  Hence,  it  is  vain  to  expect  that  that  which  is  intrinsically  best,  will 
be  everywhere  preferred  ;  or  that  which  is  meritoriously  elaborate,  adequately  appre- 
ciated. But  common  sense  might  dictate  that  learning  is  not  encouraged  or  respected 
by  those  who,  for  the  making  of  books,  prefer  a  pair  of  scissors  to  the  pen. 

36.  The  real  history  of  grammar  is  little  known ;  and  many  erroneous  impressions 
are  entertained  concerning  it :  because  the  story  of  the  systems  most  generally  receiv- 
ed, has  never  been  fully  told ;  and  that  of  a  multitude  now  gone  to  oblivion,  was  never 
worth  telling.  In  the  distribution  of  grammatical  fame,  which  has  chiefly  been  made 
by  the  hand  of  interest,  we  have  had  a  strange  illustration  of  the  sayiig:  "  Unto  every 
one  that  hath  shall  be  given,  and  he  shall  have  abundance :  but  from  him  that  hath 
not,  shall  be  taken  away  even  that  which  he  hath."  Some  whom  fortune  has  made 
popular,  have  been  greatly  overrated,  if  learning  and  talents  are  to  be  taken  into  tha 
account ;  since  it  is  manifest,  that  with  no  extraordinary  claims  to  either,  they  have 
taken  the  very  foremost  rank  among  grammarians,  and  thrown  the  learning  and  talenta 
of  otUsrs  into  the  shade,  or  made  them  tributary  to  their  own  succeiis  aud  popuUntjf, 


X  PREFACE. 

37.  Few  writpi-s  on  g'-ainmar  have  been  more  noted  than  Lily  and  Murray.  A  law 
•was  made  in  Eiighmd  by  Henry  tlie  Eighth,  commanding  Lily's  gramniai  "  only 
everywhere  to  be  taught,  for  the  use  of  learners  and  for  the  hurt  in  changing  of 
Bchooleniaisters." — Pre/,  to  Lily,  p.  .\iv.  Being  long  kept  in  force  by  means  of  a 
special  inquiry  directed  to  be  made  by  the  bishops  at  their  stated  visitations,  this  law, 
for  three  hundred  years,  imposed  the  book  on  all  the  established  schools  of  the  realm. 
Yet  it  is  certain,  that  about  one  half  of  what  has  thus  gone  under  the  name  of  Lily, 
("because,"  says  one  of  the  patentees,  "  he  had  .so  comdderahle  a  hand  in  the  compo- 
■ition,")  was  written  by  L)r.  (Jolet,  by  Erasmus,  or  by  others  who  improved  the  work 
after  Lily's  death.  (See  Ward's  Preface  to  the  book,  1703.)  Acd  of  the  other  half, 
history  incidentally  tells,  that  neither  the  scheme  nor  the  text  was  original.  The 
Printer's  Grammar,  London,  17S7,  speaking  of  the  art  of  type-founderj',  says:  "The 
Italians  in  a  short  time  brought  it  to  that  perfection,  that  in  the  beginning  of  the  year 
1474,  they  cast  a  letter  not  much  inferior  to  the  best  types  of  the  present  age;  as  may 
be  seen  in  a  Latin  Grammar  written  by  Omnibonus  Leonicenus,  and  printed  at  Padua 
on  the  14th  of  January,  1474 ;  from  whom,  our  grammarian,  Lily,  has  taken  the  entire 
scheme  of  his  gratnmar,  and  transcribed  the  greatest  part  thereof,  icithout  paying  any 
regard  to  the  memory  of  this  author.'"  The  historian  then  proceeds  to  speak  about 
types.  See  also  the  History  of  Printing,  8vo,  London,  1770.  This  is  the  grammar 
which  bears  upon  its  titlepage:  "  Qwant  solam  Regia  Majestas  in  omnibus  eeholia 
docendam  prcecipit.'" 

38.  Murray  was  an  intelligent  and  very  worthy  man,  to  whose  varions  labours  in  the 
compilation  of  books  our  schools  are  under  many  obligations.  But  in  original  thought 
and  critical  skill  he  fell  far  below  most  of  "the  authors  to  whom,"  he  confesses,  "  the 
grammatical  part  of  his  compilation  is  principally  indebted  for  its  'materials ;  namely, 
ilarris,  Johnson,  Lowth,  Priestley,  Beattie,  Sheridan,  Walker,  (Joote,  Blair,  and 
Campbell." — Introd.  to  Gram,.,  p.  7.  It  is  certain  and  evident  that  he  entered  upon 
his  task  witha  very  insufficient  preparation.  His  biography  informs  us,  that,  "  Gram- 
mar did  not  particularly  engage  his  attention,  until  a  short  time  before  the  publication 
of  his  first  work  on  that  subject ;"  that,  "His  grammar,  as  it  appeared  in  the  first 
edition,  was  completed  in  rather  less  than  a  year — though  he  had  an  intervening  ill- 
ness, which  for  several  weeks  stopped  the  progress  of  the  work;"  and  that,  "the  Ex- 
ercises and  Key  were  also  composed  in  about  a  year." — Life  of  L.  Murray,  p.  183. 
From  the  very  first  sentence  of  his  book,  it  appears  that  he  entertained  but  a  low  and 
most  erroneous  idea  of  the  duties  of  that  sort  of  character  in  which  he  was  about  to 
come  before  the  public.  He  improperly  imagined,  as  many  others  have  done,  that 
"little  can  be  expected"  from  a  modern  grammarian,  or  (as  he  chose  to  express  it) 
"from  a  new  compilation,  besides  a  careful  selection  of  the  most  useful  matter,  and 
Bome  degree  of  improvement  ii  the  mode  of  adapting  it  to  the  understanding,  and  the 
gradual  progress  of  learners." — Introd.  to  Gram.,  8vo,  p.  5;  l'2mo,  p.  3.  As  if,  to  be 
master  of  his  own  art — to  think  and  write  well  himself,  were  no  part  of  a  grammarian's 
business!  And  again,  as  if  the  jewels  of  scholarship,  thus  carefully  selected,  could 
need  a  burnish  or  a  foil  from  other  hands  than  those  which  fashioned  theml 

39.  Murray' s  general  idea  of  the  doctrines  of  grammar  was  j  udicious.  He  attempted 
no  broad  innovation  on  what  had  been  previously  taught ;  for  he  had  neither  the  vanity 
to  suppose  he  could  give  currency  to  novelties,  nor  the  folly  to  waste  his  time  in  la- 
bours utterly  nugatory.  By  turning  his  own  abilities  to  their  best  account,  he  seems 
to  have  done  much  to  promote  and  facilitate  the  study  of  our  language.  But  his  no- 
tion of  grammatical  authorship,  cuts  off  from  it  all  pretence  to  literary  merit,  for  the 
sake  of  doing  good ;  and,  taken  in  any  other  sense  than  as  a  forced  apology  for  Iiis  own 
assumptions,  his  language  on  this  point  is  highly  injurious  towards  the  very  authors 
whom  he  copied.  To  justify  himself,  he  ungenerously  places  them,  in  common  with 
others,  under  a  degrading  necessity  which  no  able  grammarian  ever  felt,  and  which 
every  man  of  genius  or  learning  must  repudiate.  If  none  of  our  older  grammars 
disprove  his  assertion,  it  is  time  to  have  a  new  one  that  will ;  for,  to  expect  the  perfec- 
tion of  grammar  from  him  who  cannot  treat  the  subject  in  a  style  at  once  original  and 
pure,  is  absurd.  He  says,  "  The  greater  part  of  an  English  grammar  m,ust  necessarily 
be  a  compilation  f  and  adds,  with  reference  to  his  own,  "originality  belongs  to  but  a 
Email  portion  of  it.  This  I  have  acknowledged ;  and  I  trust  this  acknowledgement 
will  protect  me  from  all  attacks,  grounded  on  any  supposed  inijust  and  irregular  as- 
Bumptions." — Letter,  1811.  The  acknowledgement  on  which  he  thus  relies  does  not 
appear  to  have  been  made,  till  his  grammar  had  gone  through  several  editions.  It 
was  then  inserted  as  follows:  "In  a  work  which  professes  to  be  a  compilation,  and 
which, /row  the  nature  and  design  of  it,  must  consist  chiefly  of  materials  selected 
from  the  writings  of  others,  it  is  scarcely  necessary  to  apologize  for  the  use  which  the 
compiler  has  made  of  his  predecessors'  labours,  or  for  omitting  to  insert  their  names." 
— Introd.  to  Gram.,  8vo,  p.  7;  l'2mo,  p.  4. 

40.  For  the  nature  and  design  of  a  book,  whatever  they  may  be,  the  author  alone  is 
answerable ;  but  the  nature  and  design  of  grammar,  are  no  less  repugnant  to  the  strain 
of  this  apology,  than  to  the  vast  number  of  errors  and  defects  which  were  overlooked 
by  Murray  in  iiis  work  of  compilation.  There  is  no  part  of  the  volume  more  accurate, 
than  that  which  he  literally  copied  from  Lowth.  To  the  Short  Introduction  alone  he 
was  iudebted  for  more  thau  a  hundred  and  twenty  paragraphs ;  and  cvun  ia  these 


PREFACE,  x\ 

thsro  arc  many  tl.ings  obviously  erroneous.  Many  of  the  best  practical  notes  wcra 
taken  from  Priestley ;  yet  it  was  he,  at  whose  doctrines  were  pointed  most  of  thoso 
"  positions  and  discussions,"  which  alone  the  author  claims  as  original.  To  some, 
however,  his  own  alterations  may  have  given  rise  ;  for,  where  he  "  persuades  himself 
he  is  not  destitute  of  originality,"  he  is  often  arguing  against  thetext  of  his  own  earlier 
editions.  Webster's  well-known  complaints  of  Murray's  unfairness,  had  a  far  better 
cause  than  requital ;  for  there  was  no  generosity  in  ascribing  them  to  peevishness, 
though  the  passages  in  question  were  not  worth  copying.  On  perspicuity  and  accuracy, 
about  si.xty  pages  were  extracted  from  Blair,  and  it  requires  no  great  critical  acumen 
to  discover,  that  they  are  miserably  deficient  in  both.  On  the  law  of  language,  thero 
are  fifteen  pages  from  Campbell;  which,  with  a  few  exceptions,  are  well  written.  Tho 
rules  for  spelling  are  the  same  as  Walker's:  the  third  one,  however,  is  a  gross  blun- 
der; and  the  fourth,  a  needless  repetition.  Were  this  a  place  for  minute  criticism, 
blemishes  almost  innumerable  might  be  pointed  out.  It  might  easily  be  shown  that 
almost  every  rule  laid  down  in  the  book  for  the  observance  of  the  learner,  was  repeat- 
edly violated  by  the  lumd  of  the  mastci'.  Nor  is  there  among  all  those  who  have  since 
abridged  or  moditicd  the  work,  an  abler  grammarian  than  he  who  compiled  it.  Who 
■will  pretend  that  Flint,  Alden,  Comly,  Jaudon,  Eussell,  Bacon,  Lyon,  Miller,  Alger, 
Maltby,  Ingersoll,  Fisk,  Greenleaf,  Merchant,  Kirkham,  Cooper,  R.  G.  Greene,  Wood- 
worth,  Smith,  or  Frost,  has  exhibited  greater  skill?  It  is  curious  to  observe,  how 
frequently  a  grammatical  blunder  committed  by  JIurray,  or  some  one  of  his  prede- 
cessors, has  escaped  the  notice  of  all  tliese,  as  well  as  of  many  others  who  have  found 
it  easier  to  copy  him  than  to  write  for  themselves. 

41.  But  Murray's  grammatical  works,  being  at  once  extolled  in  the  reviews,  and 
made  common  stock  in  trade, — being  published,  both  in  England  and  in  America,  by 
booksellers  of  the  most  extensive  correspondence,  and  highly  commended  even  by 
those  who  were  most  interested  in  the  sale  of  them, — have  been  eminently  successful 
with  the  public;  and,  in  tlie  opinion  of  the  world,  bucccss  is  the  strongest  proof  of 
merit.  Nor  has  the  force  of  this  argument  been  overlooked  by  those  who  have  writtea 
in  aid  of  his  popularity.  It  is  the  strong  point  ia  most  of  the  commendations  which, 
have  been  bestowed  upon  Murray  as  a  grammarian.  A  recent  eulogist  computes,  that, 
"  at  least  five  millions  of  copies  of  his  various  school-books  have  been  printed ;"  par- 
ticularly commends  him  for  bis  "candour  and  liberality  towards  rival  authors;"  avera 
that,  "he  went  ou,  examining  and  correcting  his  grammar,  through  all  its  forty  edi- 
tions, till  he  brought  it  to  a  degree  of  perfection  wliich  will  render  it  as  permanent  as 
the  English  language  itself;"  censures  (and  not  without  reason)  the  "presumption'* 
of  those  "superficial  critics"  who  have  attempted  to  amend  the  work,  and  usurp  his 
honours;  and,  regarding  the  compiler's  confcs.sion  of  his  indebtedness  to  others,  buS 
as  a  mark  of  "  his  exemplary  diffidence  of  his  own  merits,"  adds,  (in  very  bad  Eng- 
lish,) "  Perhaps  there  never  was  an  author  whose  success  and  fame  were  more  unex- 
2)ected  bt/  himself,  than  Lindley  Murray." — 2'he  Friend,  Vol.  iii,  p.  33. 

42.  In  a  New-York  edition  of  Murray's  Grammar,  printed  in  1812,  there  was  in- 
serted a  "Caution  to  the  Public,"  by  Collins  &  Co.,  his  American  correspondents  and 
publishers,  in  which  are  set  forth  the  unparalleled  success  and  merit  of  the  work,  "as 
it  came  in  purity  from  the  pen  of  the  author ;"  with  an  earnest  remonstrance  against 
the  several  revised  editions  which  had  appeared  at  Boston,  Philadelphia,  and  other 
places,  and  against  the  unwarrantable  liberties  taken  by  American  teachers,  in  alter- 
ing the  work,  under  pretence  of  improving  it.  In  this  article  it  is  stated,  "  that  ths 
whole  of  these  mutilated  editions  have  been  seen  and  examined  by  Lindley  Murray 
himself,  and  that  they  have  met  with  his  decided  disapx>rohation.  Every  rational 
mind,"  continue  these  gentlemen,  "will  agree  with  him,  that,  '■Xhn  rights  of  living 
authors,  and  the  interests  of  science  and  literature,  demand  the  abolition  of  this  un- 
ijcncrous practice.''  "  Here,  then,  we  have  the  opinion  and  feeling  of  Murray  himself 
upon  this  tender  point  of  right.  Kere  we  see  the  tables  turned,  and  other  men  judg- 
ing it  "  scarcely  necessary  to  apologize  for  the  use  which  tliey  have  made  of  their 
Ijredecessors'  labours." 

43.  It  is  not  intended  by  the  introduction  of  these  notices,  to  impute  to  Murray  any 
thing  more  or  less  than  what  his  own  words  plainly  imply ;  except  those  inaccuracies 
and  deficiencies  which  still  disgrace  his  work  as  a  literary  performance,  and  which  of 
course  he  did  not  discover.  He  himself  knew  that  he  had  not  brought  the  book  to 
such  perfection  as  has  been  ascribed  to  it ;  for,  by  way  of  apology  for  his  frequent  al- 
terations, he  says,  "Works  of  this  nature  admit  of  repeated  improvements;  and  are, 
lierhaps,  never  complete."  But  it  is  due  to  truth  to  correct  erroneous  impressions; 
and,  in  order  to  obtain  from  some  an  impartial  examination  of  the  following  pages,  it 
seems  necessary  first  to  convince  them  that  it  is  possible,  to  compose  a  better  grammar 
tlian  Murray's,  without  being  particularly  indebted  to  him.  If  this  treatise  is  not 
such,  a  great  deal  of  time  has  been  thrown  away  upon  a  useless  project;  and  if  it  is, 
the  achievement  is  no  fit  subject  for  either  pride  or  envy.  It  differs  from  his,  and 
from  every  granmrar  based  upon  his,  as  a  new  map,  drawn  from  actual  and  minuta 
surveys,  differs  from  an  old  one,  compiled  chiefly  from  others  still  older  and  confess- 
edly still  more  imperfect.  The  region  and  the  scope  are  essentially  the  same ;  th« 
tracing  and  the  colouring  are  more  original  j  and  (if  the  reader  cau  pardon  tke  Bug* 
gestiou;  perhaps  more  accurate  and  vivid. 


Xil  PREFACE. 

44.  He  who  makes  a  new  grammar,  does  iiotbing  for  the  advancement  of  learning, 
unless  his  performance  excel  all  earlier  ones  designed  for  the  same  purpose ;  and  no- 
thing for  his  own  honour,  unless  such  excellence  result  from  the  exercise  of  his  own 
ingenuity  and  taste.  A  good  style  naturally  commends  itself  to  every  reader — even  to 
him  who  cannot  tell  why  it  is  worthy  of  preference.  Hence  there  is  reason  to  believe, 
that  the  true  principles  of  practical  grammar,  deduced  from  custom  and  sanctioned  by 
time,  will  never  be  generally  superseded  by  any  thing  which  individual  caprice  may 
Eubstitute.  In  the  republic  of  letters,  there  will  always  be  some  who  can  distinguish 
merit ;  and  it  is  impossible  that  these  should  ever  be  converted  to  any  whimsical  theory 
of  language,  which  goes  to  make  void  the  learning  of  past  ages.  There  will  always 
tie  some  who  can  discern  the  ditference  between  originality  of  style,  and  innovation  in 
doctrine — between  a  due  regard  to  tlic  opinions  of  others,  and  an  actual  usurpation  of 
their  text;  and  it  is  incredible  that  these  should  ever  be  eatisfied  with  any  mere  com- 
pilation of  grammar,  or  with  any  such  authorship  as  either  confesses  or  betrays  the 
•writer's  own  incompetence.  For  it  is  not  true,  that  "an  English  grammar  must  neces- 
sarily be,"  in  any  considerable  degree,  if  at  all,  "a  compilation;"  nay,  on  such  a 
theme,  and  in  "the  grammatical  part"  of  the  work,  all  compilation,  beyond  a  fair  use 
of  authorities  regularly  quoted,  or  of  materials  either  voluntarily  furnished  or  free  to 
all,  most  unavoidably  implies — not  conscious  "  ability,"  generously  doing  honour  to 
rival  merit — -nor  "  exemplary  diffidence,"  modestly  veiling  its  own — but  inadequate 
Bkill  and  iuferior  talents,  bribing  the  public  by  the  spoUs  of  genius,  and  seeking  pre- 
cedence by  such  means  as  not  even  the  purest  desire  of  doing  good  can  justify. 

45.  All  praise  of  excellence  must  needs  be  comparative,  because  the  thing  itself  is  so. 
To  excel  in  grammar,  is  l)ut  to  know  better  than  others  wherein  grammatical  excel- 
lence consists.  Hence  there  is  no  fixed  point  of  perfection  beyond  which  such  learning 
may  not  be  carried.  The  limit  to  improvement  is  not  so  much  in  the  nature  of  the 
subject,  as  in  the  powers  of  the  mind,  and  in  the  inducements  to  exert  them  upon  a 
theme  so  humble  and  so  uninviting.  Dr.  Johnson  suggests  in  his  masterly  preface, 
"  tliat  a  whole  life  cannot  be  spent  upon  synta.x  and  etymology,  and  that  even  a  whole 
life  would  not  be  sufficient."  Who  then  v/ill  suppose,  in  the  face  of  such  facts  and 
confessions  as  have  been  e.xhibited,  that  cither  in  the  faulty  publications  of  Murray, 
or  among  the  various  modifications  of  them  by  other  hands,  we  h.ave  any  such  work 
as  deserves  to  be  made  a  permarTent  standard  of  instruction  in  English  grammar  ?— 
The  author  of  this  treatise  will  not  pretend  that  it  is  perfect ;  though  he  has  bestowed 
upon  it  no  inconsiderable  pains,  that  the  narrow  limits  to  v.iiich  it  must  needs  be  con- 
fined, might  be  filled  up  to  the  utmost  advantago  of  the  learner,  as  well  as  to  the  best 
direction  and  greatest  relief  of  the  teacher. 

46.  A  Key  to  the  Oral  Exercians  i7i  False  Syntax,  is  inserted  in  the  Grammar,  that 
the  pupil  may  be  enabled  fully  to  prepare  himself  for  that  kind  of  class  X'ecitaiions. 
Being  acquainted  with  the  rule,  and  having  seen  tlie  correction,  he  may  be  expected 
to  state  the  error  and  the  reason  for  the  change,  without  embarrassment  or  delay.  It 
is  the  opinion  of  some  teachers,  that  no  Key  in  aid  of  the  student  should  be  given. 
Accordingly  many  grammars,  not  destitute  of  exercises  in  false  syntax,  are  published 
without  cither  formules  of  correction,  or  a  Key  to  show  the  right  reading.  But  Eng- 
lish grammar,  in  any  extensive  exhibition  of  it,  is  a  study  dry  and  difficult  enough  for 
the  young,  when  we  have  used  our  best  endeavours  to  free  it  from  all  obscurities  and 
doubts.  The  author  thinks  he  has  learned  from  experience,  that,  with  explicit  help 
of  th's  sort,  most  pupils  will  not  only  gain  more  knowledge  of  the  art  iu  a  given  time, 
but  in  the  end  find  their  acquisitions  more  satisfactory  and  more  permanent. 

47.  A  separate  Key  to  the  Exerciseti  for  Writing,  is  published  for  tlie  convenience 
of  teacliers  and  private  learners.  For  an  obvious  reason  this  Key  should  not  be  put 
into  the  hands  of  the  school-boy.  Being  a  distinct  volume,  it  may  be  had,  bound  by 
itself  or  with  the  Grammar.  Those  teachers  who  desire  to  exercise  their  pupils  oraUy 
in  correcting  false  grammar  without  a  Key,  can  at  any  time  make  use  of  this  series  of 
examples  tor  such  purpose. 

48.  From  the  first  edition  of  the  following  treatise,  there  was  made  by  the  author, 
for  the  use  of  young  learners,  a  brief  abstract,  entitled,  '■'■The  First  Lines  of  English 
Oramritar;"  in  which  are  embraced  all  the  leading  doctrines  of  the  original  work, 
with  a  new  series  of  examples  for  their  application  in  parsing.  Much  that  is  important 
i.i  the  grammar  of  the  language,  was  necessarily  excluded  from  this  epitome  ;  nor  was 
it  designed  for  those  who  can  learn  a  larger  book  without  wearing  it  out.  But  econ- 
omy, as  well  as  convenience,  demands  small  and  cheap  treatises  for  children;  and 
those  teachers  who  approve  of  this  system  of  grammatical  instruction,  will  find  many 
reasons  for  preferring  the  First  Lines  to  any  other  compend,  as  an  introduction  to  the 
study  of  these  Institutes. 

49.  Having  imdertaken  and  prosecuted  this  work,  with  the  hope  of  facilitating  the 
litudy  of  the  English  Language,  and  thus  promoting  the  impruvement  of  the  young, 
the  author  now  presents  his  finished  labours  to  the  candour  and  discernment  of  those 
to  whom  is  committed  the  important  business  of  instruction.  How  far  he  has  suc- 
ceeded in  the  execution  of  his  design,  is  willingly  left  to  the  just  decision  of  those  who 
are  qualified  to  judge.  GOOLD  BUOVVN. 

iievised,  Lynn,  Mass.,  1854. 


POSTSCKIPT  TO  THE  PREFACE. 


The  school-book  now  pretty  -well-knoivn  as  "  Bro-wn's  Institutes  of  English  Oranfc 
mar,"  was  my  first  attempt  at  authorship  in  the  character  of  a  grammarian ;  and, 
satisfactory  as  it  has  been  to  the  many  thousands  who  have  used  it,  it  has  never- 
theless, like  all  other  not  incorrigible  attempts  in  this  line,  been  found  susceptible  of 
sundry  important  emendations.  So  that  I  must  believe  with  Murray,  that,  "Works 
of  this  nature  admit  of  re2Jeated  improvements;  and  are,  perhaps,  never  complete." 
It  cannot,  however,  be  said  In  my  favour,  as  it  has  been  in  cummendation  of  this 
author,  that,  "  lie  went  on  examining  and  correcting  his  gmmmar  through  all  its  fort'j 
editions,  till  he  brought  it  to  the  utmost  degree  of  perfection ;"  but  something  has 
been  done  in  this  way,  three  or  four  of  the  early  editions  of  t!ic  Institutes  ha\i jg 
been  severally  retouched  and  improved  by  the  author's  hand  ,  and  now,  an  undimin- 
ished demand  for  the  work  having  continued  to  spread  its  reputation,  I  have  at 
length  the  satisfaction  to  have  endeavoured  yet  once  again  to  render  it  still  mora 
worthy  of  the  public  favour. 

The  time  which  has  elapsed  since  the  author  first  published  this  work,  has  beeis 
mainly  spent  in  labours  and  studies  tending  very  directly  to  enlarge  and  mature  bis 
knowledge  of  English  Grammar;  and,  especially,  to  better  bis  acquaintance  with  the 
great  variety  of  books  and  essay's  which  have  been  written  upon  it.  The  principal 
result  of  these  labours  and  studies  has  been  given  to  the  world  in  Lis  large  work 
entitled  "  The  Grammar  of  English  Grammars."  To  conform  the  future  editions 
cf  these  Institutes  more  nearly  to  the  text  of  this  large  Grammar,  to  supply  soms 
deficiences  which  have  been  thought  to  lessen  the  comparative  value  of  the  former 
work,  to  divide  the  book  more  sj'stematically  into  chapters  and  subdivisions,  and  to 
correct  a  few  typograpliical  errors  which  had  crept  in,  were  the  objects  contemplated 
in  the  revision  which  has  now  been  effected. 

In  making  those  improvements,  I  have  not  forgotten  that  alterations  in  a  popular 
class-book  are,  on  some  accounts,  exceedingly  undesirable.  Tlie  writer  who  veuturcs 
at  all  upon  them,  is  ever  liable  to  subject  his  patrons  and  best  friends  to  more  or  less 
iuconvenicnce;  and  for  this  he  should  be  very  sure  of  having  presented,  in  every 
instance,  an  ample  compensation.  It  is  believed  that  the  changes  which  the  present 
revision  exhibits,  though  they  are  neither  few  nor  unimportant,  need  not  prevent,  in 
bchools,  a  concurrent  use  of  old  editions  with  the  new,  till  the  former  may  be  suf- 
ficiently worn  out.  Wliat  has  been  added  or  changed,  will  therefore  lack  no  justifica- 
tion ;  and  the  author  will  rest,  with  sufficient  assurance,  in  the  hope  tliat  the  intelligent 
patronage  wliich  has  hitherto  been  giving  more  and  more  publicity  to  his  earliest 
teachings,  will  find,  decidedly,  and  without  mistake,  in  this  improved  form  of  the 
work,  the  best  common  school  Grammar  now  extant. 

GOOLD  BROWN. 
Lynn,  Mats.,  1855. 

2 


TABLE    OF    CONTENTS, 


Preface  to  the  Institutes ;  .  .  .  . 
Postcript  to  the  Preface ;  .  .  .  . 
Defiuitiou  and  Division  of  English  Grammar  ; 


iii-xii. 

xlii. 
17. 


PART  I.— OETHOGEAPHY. 


Chapter  I.— Of  Letters ; 

I.  Names  of  the  Letters ; 

IL  Classes  of  the  Letters  ; 

in.  Powers  of  the  Letters; 

IV.  Forms  of  the  Letters  ;  . 

Eules  for  the  use  of  Capitals ; 
Chapter  IL— Of  Syllables;     . 

Diphthongs  and  Triphthongs ; 

Eules  for  Syllabication ; 
Chapter  III.— Of  Words ; 

Species  and  Figure  of  Words; 

Eules  for  the  Figure  of  Words; 
Chapter  IV.— Of  Spelltng;    . 

Eules  for  Spelling ; 
Chapter  V. — Questions  on  Orthography  ; 
Chapter  VI. — Exercises  in  Orthography ; 


PAET  IL— ETYMOLOGY. 


Chapter  I.— The  Parts  of  Speech; 

Parsing,  Praxis  I ; 
Chapter  IL— Of  Articles  ; 
Chapter  III. — Of  Nouns  ; 
Persons ; 
Numbers 
Genders ; 
Cases ; 

The  Declension  of  Nouns ;  . 
Analysis  and  Parsing,  Prajcis  II 
Chapter  IV. — Of  Adjectives  ; 

The  Comparison  of  Adiectives  ,  . 

Analysis  and  Parsing,  Praxis  III 

Chapter  V. — Of  Pronouns ;     . 

The  Declension  of  Pronouns 

Analysis  and  Parsing,  Praxis  IV 

Chapter  VL— Of  Verbs  ; 

Moods ; 

Tenses ; 

Persons  and  Numbers 

The  Conjugation  of  Verbs  ; 

The  Form  of  Passive  Verbs ; 

Irregular  Verbs ; . 

Eedundant  Verbs ; 

Defective  Verba  i         .        . 


17. 
19. 
20. 
24. 
26. 
27. 
23. 
28. 
29. 
29. 
29. 
SO. 
SL 
81. 
83. 
84. 


42- 
44. 
46. 
47. 
48, 
49. 
51. 
52. 
53. 
54. 
55. 
56. 
59. 
61. 
63. 
Go. 
07. 
63. 
70. 
71. 
74, 
88. 
91, 
95. 
97. 


CONTENTS. 


XT 


'raxi8 


Chapter  VII.— Of  Participles  • 
Analysis  and  Parsing,  Pr 

Chapter  VUl.— Of  Adverbs  ; 

Chapter  IX.— Of  Oonjnnctions;   . 

Chapter  X.— Of  Prepositions;     . 

Ciiapter  XI. — Of  Interjections; 

Analysis  and  Parsing,  Praxis  VI ; 

Chapter  Xl'l. — tiuestions  ou  Etymology; 

Chapter  Xlll. — Exercises  in  Etymology  ; 


PAOR, 

98. 
102. 

10.-;. 

107. 
108. 
109. 
110. 
114. 
119 


PART  III. — SYNTAX. 


Introductory  Definitions ; 
Chapter  I.— The  Rules  of  Syntax, 

Analysis  and  Parsing,  Praxis  VII ; 
Chapter  II. — Of  Eelation  and  Agreement; 

Rule  I. — Of  Articles; 

Rule  II. — Of  Nominatives; 

Rule  III.— Of  Apposition ; 

Rule  IV. — Of  Adjectives  ; 

Rule  V. — Of  Pronouns  ;     . 

Rule  VI. — Of  the  Pronoun  and  Collective  Noun  ;     . 

Rule  VII. — Of  the  Pronoun  and  Joint  Antecedents; 

Rule  VIII. — Of  the  Pronoun  and  Disjunct  Antecedents 

RulelX.— Of  Veibs;  .        .        ... 

Rule  X. — Of  the  Verb  and  Collective  Noun ;    . 

Rule  XI. — Of  the  Verb  and  Joint  Nominatives ; 

Rule  XII. — Of  the  Verb  and  Disjunct  Nominatives 

Rule  XIII.— Of  Verbs  Connected; 

Rule  XIV.— Of  Participles  ;       . 

Rule  XV.— Of  Adverbs: 

Rule  XVI. — Of  Conjunctions ;  . 

Rule  XVII.— Of  Prepositions  ; 

Rule  XVIII. — Of  Inteijections  ; 
Chapter  III. — Of  Government ; 

Rule  XIX. — Of  Possessives;     . 

Rule  XX.— Of  Objectives ; 

Rule  XXI. — Of  Same  Cases ;     . 

Rule  XXII.— Of  Objectives ;     . 

RuleXXIII.— Of  Inlinitives;    . 

Rule  XXIV.— Of  Infinitives  ;    . 

Rule  XXV. — Of  the  Case  Absolute,  or  Independent 

Rule  XXVI.— Of  Subjunctives; 

False  Syntax  Promiscuous ; 
Chapter  IV. — General  Items; 

General  Eulo  of  Syntax  ;    . 

General  Observations  on  the  Syntax  ; 

False  Syntax  under  the  General  Rule 

Analysis  and  Parsing ; 
Chapter  V. — Questions  on  Syntax  ; 
Chapter  VI. — Exercises  in  Syntax ; 


124. 
125. 
131. 
154. 
151. 
159. 
16u. 
1G2. 
163. 
177. 
178. 
179. 
180. 
183. 
185. 
188= 
190. 
192, 
196. 
200. 
203. 
206, 
206. 
207- 
210. 
213. 
214. 
21G. 
218. 
219. 
220. 
222. 
226. 
226. 
227. 
228. 
229. 
234. 
236. 


PART   IV. — PROSODY. 


Chapter  I. — Of  Punctuation; 

Section  I. — Of  the  Comma ; 
Section  II. — Of  the  Semicolon  ; 
Section  III.— Of  the  Colon  ;       . 
Section  I V.— Of  the  Period ;      . 
Section  V, — Of  the  Dash ;  . 


249. 
249. 
254. 
254. 
2o5. 
256.. 


XVI 


CONTENTS. 


Section  VI.— Of  the  Eroteme  ;    . 

Section  VII. — Of  the  Eephonemo  ; 

Section  VIII.— Of  the  Curves? ; 

Section  IX. — Of  the  Other  Marks ; 
Chapter  II. — Of  Utterance  ; 

Section  I. — Of  Pronunciation ;  . 

Section  II. — Of  Elocution ; 
Chapter  III.— Of  Figures  ; 

Section  I. — Fijjures  of  Orthography 

Section  II. — Figures  of  Etymology; 

Section  III. — Figures  of  Syntax ; 

Section  IV. — Figures  of  Rhetorix;; 
Chapter  IV. — Of  Versification  ; 

Section  I. — Of  Quantity ; 

Section  II.— Of  Ehyme ; 

Section  III. — Of  Poetic  Feet;   . 

Section  IV. — Of  Scanning; 
Order  I. — Iambic  Verse ;    . 
Order  II. — Trochaic  Verse; 
Order  III. — Anapestic  Verse; 
Order  IV. — Dactylic  Verse ; 
Chapter  V. — Oral  Exercises  ; 

Examples  for  Parsing,  Praxis  VIII ; 
Chapter  VI. — Questions  on  Prosody  ; 
Chapter  VII. — Exercises  in  Prosody ; 

KEY  to  Oral  Exercises  in  False  Syntax ; 
APPENDIX  I.— Sounds  of  Letters  ; 
APPENDIX  II.— Of  Derivation ;      . 
APPENDIX  III.— Of  Stvlc  ;      . 
APPENDIX  IV.— Of  Poetic  Dictioa } 


•        •        •       •       • 


PAGE. 
256. 

257. 
257. 
258. 
260. 
260. 
261. 
261. 
262. 
262. 
263. 
265. 
207. 
268. 
268. 
208. 
269. 
269. 
270. 
272. 
272. 
274*. 
274. 
281. 
283. 

297. 
SI  9. 

827. 

o6t . 


THE 


INSTITUTES 


OF 


ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 


English  Grammar  is  the  art  of  speaking;,  reading, 
and  writing  the  English  language  correctly. 

It  is  divided  into  four  parts ;  namely,  Orthography, 
Etymology,  Syntax,  and  Prosody. 

Ortho<jraphy  treats  of  letters,  syllables,  separate  words, 
and  spelling. 

Etymology  treats  of  the  different  parts  of  speech,  with 
their  classes  and  modifications. 

Syntax  treats  of  the  relation,  agreement,  government, 
and  arrangement,  of  words  in  sentences. 

Prosody  treats  of  punctuation,  utterance,  figures,  and 
versification. 


^S  <     ^    •   <!^ 


PART    I. 
0  r.  T  II  0  GR  APIIY. 

Orthography  treats  of  letters,  syllables,  separate  words, 
and  spellint 


ig- 


CHAPTER  I.— OF  LETTERS. 

A  Letter  is  an  alphabetic  mark,  or  character,  com- 
monly representing  some  elementary  sound  of  a  word. 

An  elementary  sound  of  a  word,  is  a  simple  or  pri- 
mary sound  of  the  human  voice,  used  in  speaking. 

The  sound  of  a  letter  is  commonly  called  its  power : 
when  any  letter  of  a  word  is  not  sounded,  it  is  said  to  be 
silent  or  mute, 

2* 


18  INSTITUTES   OF   ENGLISH   GRAMMAR.        [PAET  I. 

The  letters  in  tbe  English  alphabet,  arc  twenty-six ; 
the  simple  or  piimarj  sounds  in  the  language,  are  about, 
thirty-six  or  thirty -seven. 

A  knowledge  of  the  letters  consists  in  an  acquaintance 
with  these  four  sorts  of  things  ;  their  names^  their  classes^ 
their  J90t/;er5,  and  thevc  forms. 

The  letters  are  written,  or  printed,  or  paintea,  or  en- 
graved, or  embossed,  in  an  infinite  variety  of  shapes  and 
sizes  ;  and  yet  are  always  the  same,  because  their  essen- 
tial properties  do  not  change,  and  their  names,  classes, 
and  powers,  are  mostly  permanent. 

The  following  are  some  of  the  different  sorts  of  types, 
or  styles  of  letters,  with  which  every  reader  should  be 
early  acquainted: — 

1.  The  Roman :  A  a,  B  b,  C  c,  D  d,  E  c,  F  f,  a  g, 
H  h,  I  i,  J  j,  K  k,  L  1,  M  m,  N  n,  O  o,  P  p,  Q  q,  R  r, 
S  s,  T  t,  U  u,  V  V,  W  w,  X  X,  Y  y,  Z  z. 

2.  The  Italic  :  A  a,  Bh,  G  c,  D  d,  E e,  F  f,  G  g,  II h, 
li,  Jf  Kl;  L  I,  31  on,  Nn,  0  o,  P  p,  Qq,  lit,  S  s,  T  t, 
U^i,  Vv,  W  w,  Jl  X,  Yy,  Z  z. 

8.  The  Script:  ©^a,  iM  /,  ^  c,  HJ  4  S c, 
^/    ^/.    (^^    Qf^\   f/]    (^/.   £^4 

^/.    mu.   ^^t,    7F^u..   m^.    ^y.   ^j.. 

4.  The  Old  English  -,  a  a,  D  b,  C  r,  D  b,  GE  e,  f  f. 
(5  g,  i3 1).  1  i,  i  f.  H  K  1 1,  lit  m,  N  n,  ©  o,  p  p,  (G  c|. 
n  r,  Q  6,  ®  t,  II  u,  I)  I),  iD  to,  X  X,  13  tj,  %  y. 

OBSERVATIONS. 

Ob8.  1. — Language,  in  the  primitive  sense  of  the  term,  embraced  only 
vocal  expression,  or  luiman  speech  uttered  by  the  mouth  ;  but,  after  lettei'3 
were  invented  to  represent  articulate  sounds,  language  became  twofold, 
spoken  and  written, ;  so  that  tlie  term  language,  now  signifies,  any  series  of 
eounds  or  letters  farmed  into  tvords  and  employed  far  the  expression  of  thmgid. 

Obs.  2. — Letters  claim  to  be  a  part  of  language,  not  merely  because  they 
represent  articulate  sounds,  or  spoken  words,  but  because  they  form  worda 
of  themselves,  and  have  the  power  to  become  intelligible  signs  of  thought, 
even  independently  of  sound.  Literature  being  the  counterpart  of  speech, 
and  more  plenteous  in  words,  the  person  who  cannot  read  and  write,  is  about 
as  deficient  in  language,  as  the  well  instructed  deaf  mute :  perhaps  more 
so ;  for  copiousness,  even  of  speech,  results  from  letters. 

Obs.  3. — For  the  formation  of  words,  letter,  have  some  important  advan- 
tages over  articulate  or  syllabic  sounds,  tin,  jgh  the  latter  communicate 
thought  more  expeditiously.  The  WTitten  symbols  subdivide  even  tho 
least'parts  of  spoken  language,  which  aro  syllables,  reducing  them  to  a  few 


CHAr.  I.]  ORTnOGRAPHY.— LETTERS.— THEIR  NAMES.       19 

combinablo  elements  ;  and  are  themselves  thereby  reduced  to  a  manageable 
number, — even  to  fewer  than  the  elem.ents  which  they  represent.  But  tho 
great  advantage  of  recorded  language  is  its  pernuinence,  with  its  unhniited 
power  o(  circulaiio/i  and  transmisdon. 

Ous.  4. — As  a  letter  taken  singly  is  commonly  the  sign  of  some  elementary 
sound,  and  of  nothing  more,  so  the  primary  combinations  of  letters  are  often 
exhibited  as  mere  notations  of  syllabic  sounds,  and  not  as  having  the  signifi- 
cance of  w'c/-(/«.  Silent  letters  occur  only  in  tiie  particular  positions  which 
custom  or  etymology  has  given  them  in  certain  w;w(^s ;  and,  though  mute, 
they  are  still  named  and  classed  accoi'diug  to  tho  powers  usually  pertaining  to 
the  same  characters. 

Obs.  5. — It  is  suggested  above,  that  a  knowledge  of  tho  letters  implies  aa 
acquaintance  with  their  names,  their  classes,  their  powers,  and  their  forms. 
Under  these  four  heads,  therefore,  I  shall  briefly  present  the  fact-e  which 
eeem  to  be  most  worthy  of  the  learner's  attention  at  first,  and  shall  reservo 
for  the  appendix  a  more  particular  account  of  these  important  elements. 

I.  NAMES  OF  THE  LETTERS. 

The  names  of  the  letters,  as  now  commonly  spoken 
and  written  in  English,  are  A,  Bee^  Cee,  Dee,  E,  Ej}\  Gee^ 
Aitch,  I,  Jay,  Kay,  Ell,  Em,  En,  0,  Pee,  JSais,  Ar,  Ess, 
Tee,  TJ.  Vee,  Douhle-u,  Ex,  Wy,  Zee. 

OBSERVATIONS. 

Obs.  1. — The  names  of  the  letters,  as  expressed  in  the  modern  languages, 
are  mostly  framed  with  reference  to  their  powers,  or  sounds.  Yet  is  there  in 
English  no  letter  of  whicn  tho  name  is  always  identical  with  its  power  :  for 
A,  E,  I,  0,  and  U,  are  the  only  letters  which  can  name  themselves,  and  all 
these  have  other  sounds  than  those  which  their  names  express.  The  con- 
Bonants  are  so  manifestly  insufficient  to  form  any  name  of  themselves  alone, 
and  so  palpable  is  tho  difference  between  the  nature  and  the  name  of  eacli, 
that,  did  we  not  know  how  education  has  been  trifled  with,  it  would  be  hard 
to  believe  the  assertion  of  Murray,  that,  "  They  are  frequently  confounded 
by  writers  on  grammar  I" 

0b8.  2. — Those  letters  which  name  themselves,  take  for  their  names  those 
Bounds  which  they  usually  represent  at  the  end  of  an  accented  syllable ; 
thus  the  names.  A,  E,  I,  6,  U,  are  uttered  with  the  sounds  given  to  tho 
Bame  letters  in  the  first  syllables  of  the  other  names,  Abel,  Enoch,  Isaac, 
Obed,  Urimj  or  in  the  first  syllables  of  the  common  words,  paper,  penal, 
pilot,  potent,  pupil.  The  other  letters,  most  of  which  can  never  be  perfectly 
sounded  alone,  have  names  in  which  their  powers  aro  combined  with  othei' 
sounds  more  vocal ;  as.  Bee,  Cee,  Dee, — Ell,  Em,  En, — Jay,  Kay,  Kue.  But, 
in  this  respect,  the  terms  Aitch  and  Dauble-u  are  irregular ;  because  they 
have  no  obvious  reference  to  the  powers  of  the  letters  thus  named. 

Obs.  3. — The  names  of  the  letters,  like  those  of  the  days  of  the  week,  are 
words  of  a  very  peculiar  kind ;  being  nouns  that  are  at  once  both  proper  and 
common.  For,  in  respect  to  rank,  character,  and  design,  each  letter  is  a 
thing  strictly  individual  and  identical — that  is,  it  is  ever  one  and  the  same  ; 
7et,  in  an  other  respect,  it  is  a  comprehensive  eort,  embracing  individuals 
30th  various  and  numberless.  Tho  name  of  a  letter,  therefore,  should  al- 
ways be  written  with  a  capital,  as  a  proper  noun,  at  least  in  the  singula* 
number  •  and  should  form  the  plural  regularly,  as  an  ordinary  appellative. 
Thus:  (if  we  adopt,  as  we  ought,  the  names  now  most  generally  used  in 
English  schools:)  A,  Aes :  Bee,  Bees;  Cee,  Cees ;  Dee,  Dees;  E,  Ees;  Ef, 
Effs  ;  Gee,  Gees  ;  Aitch,  Aitches:  I,  les ;  Jay,  Jays  ;  Kay,  Kays ;  Ell,  Ells ; 
Em,  Ems;  En,  Ens;  0,  Oes ;  Pee,  Pees;  Eve,  Kues ;  Ar,  Ars ;  Ess,  Esses; 
Tee,  Tees ;  U,  Ues  ;  Vee,  Vees ;  Double-u,  Doulle-ues ;  Ex,  Ems  ;  Wy,  Wies ; 
Zee,  Zees. 

Obs.  4. — Letters,  like  all  other  things,  must  be  learned  and  spoken  of  hf 


I 


20  INSTITUTES   OF   ENGLISH   GRAMMAE.       [PART  I. 

{heir  names}  nor  can  they  be  spolien  of  otherwise  ;  yet,  as  the  simple  char- 
acters are  better  known  and  more  easily  exhibited  than  their  written  names, 
the  former  are  often  substituted  for  the  latter,  and  are  read  as  the  words  for 
which  they  are  assumed.  Hence  the  orthography  of  these  words  has  hitherto 
been  left  too  much  to  mere  fancy  or  caprice ;  no  certain  method  of  writing 
them  has  b^en  generally  inculcated ;  so  that  many  who  think  themselvea 
well  educated,  would  be  puzzled  to  name  on  paper  these  simple  elements  of 
all  learning. 

Obs.  5. — In  many,  if  not  in  all  languages,  the  five  vowels,  A,  E,  I,  0,  U, 
name  themselves ;  but  they  name  themselves  differently  to  the  ear,  accord- 
ing to  the  different  ways  of  uttering  them  in  different  languages.  And  aa 
the  name  of  a  consonant  necessarily  requires  one  or  more  vowels,  that  also 
may  be  affected  in  the  same  manner.  But,  in  every  language,  there  should 
be  a  known  way  both  of  writing  and  of  speaking  every  name  in  the  series  ; 
and  that,  if  there  is  nothing  to  hinder,  should  be  made  conformable  to  the 
qenius  (if  tlie  hingnage.  For  the  names  of  the  letters,  in  any  language,  arc, 
in  reality,  words  of  that  language,  and  not  likely  to  be  very  suitable  for  the 
same  purpose  in  any  other. 

Obs.  G. — The  letters,  once  learned,  may  be  w.so.il'unnamed ;  and  so  are  they 
used,  always,  except  in  oral  spelling,  or  when  some  of  their  own  number  are 
to  be  particularized.  The  chief  use  of  the  written  names  is,  to  preserve  and 
teach  those  which  are  spoken  • — to  record  current  practice,  in  the  hope  of 
thereby  preventing  or  lessenmg  diversity:  for,  as  Walker  observes,  "TA* 
names  (if  the  letters  ought  to  have  no  diversity." — Principles,  No.  483. 

Ob^.  7. — The  occasions,  however,  for  naming  the  letters  are  so  frequent, 
r.nd  lists  of  their  names  are  given  in  so  many  books,  that  one  cannot  but 
marvel  at  the  absence  of  these  words  from  the  columns  of  our  dictionaries, 
and  at  the  errors  found  elsewhere  concerning  them.  So  discrepant  and  er- 
roneous are  the  modes  of  writing  them  adopted  by  authors  of  spelling-books, 
and  even  by  our  best  authorities — Walker,  Webster,  Murray,  C'hurcliill.  W. 
Allen,  and  others — t!iat  any  common  school-boy  would  guess  their  forms 
quite  as  well.  Even  John  Walker,  in  his  "  Principles  of  English  Pronun- 
ciation," spells  five  or  nix  of  them  wrong;  commences  all  of  them  with  small 
type,  as  reckoning  them  common  nouns  only  ;  fixes  a  gratuitous  and  silly 
"  diversity'''  in  five  of  them  with  his  own  hand ;  and  contradicts  himself  by 
preferring  zed  to  izzard  at  first,  and  izzard  to  zed  at  last  I 

Obs.  8. — In  every  nation  tlir.t  is  not  totally  illiterate,  custom  must  have 
established  for  the  letters  a  certain  set  of  names,  which  are  the  onhj  true  ones, 
find  which  are  of  course  to  be  preferred  lo  such  as  arc  local,  or  obsolete,  or 
unauthorized.  Sundry  examples  of  these  objectionable  sorts  of  names  may 
indeed  be  cited  from  our  school  literature  ;  for,  in  the  lapse  of  ages,  usage 
has  changed  in  a  few  instances,  and,  in  their  rash  ignorance,  some  authors 
of  A-Bee-Cee  books  have  taught,  in  lieu  of  the  right  names,  both  archaisms 
and  innovations  at  the  same  time ;  while  many  others,  thinking  the  naming 
of  letters  a  matter  not  worth  their  attention,  have  omitted  it  altogether.  I 
have  recorded  above,  the  </v/e  English  names  of  all  the  letters,  as  they  are 
now  used,  and  as  they  have  been  most  fitly,  and  perhaps  most  generally, 
used  tlms  far  in  the  nineteenth  century  ,  and,  if  there  could  be  in  human 
works  any  thing  unchangeable,  I  should  wisli,  (with  due  deference  to  all 
schemers  and  fault-finders,)  that  these  names  mighj  remain  the  same  and 
in  gooi  use  forever. 

II.  CLASSES  O?  THE  LETTERS. 

The  letters  are  divided  into  two  general  classes,  vowels 
and  consonants. 

A  vowel  is  a  letter  wliicli  forms  a  perfect  sound  when 
littered  alone ;  as,  a,  e,  o. 

A  consonant  is  a  letter  which  cannot  be  perfectly  ut- 
tered till  joined  to  a  vowel;  as,  h,  c,  d. 


CHAP.  I.]    OllTHOGRAPUY.— LETTERS.— THEIR  CLASSES.    21 

Tho  vowels  arc  a,  c,  i,  o,  it,  and  sometimes  w  and  y. 
All  the  other  letters  are  consonants. 

Wot  y  is  called  a  consonant  when  it  precedes  a  vowel 
heard  in  tho  same  syllable;  as  in  loine,  twine,  whine;  c'e, 
yet,  yoxUh:  in  all  other  cases,  these  letters  are  vowels  j  as 
in  newly ^  dewy,  eyc-hrow ;   Yssel,  Ystadt,  yttria. 

CLASSES   OF   CONSONANTS. 

The  consonants  are  divided  into  semivowels  and  mutes. 

A  scmivoivel  is  a  consonant  which  can  he  imperfectly  pounded 
without  a  vowel,  so  that  at  tho  end  of  a  syllable  its  sound 
may  he  protracted ;  as,  I,  n,  0,  in  al,  an,  az. 

A  inute  ii  a  consonant  which  cannot  ho  sounaed  at  all  with- 
out a  vowel,  and  which  at  tho  end  of  a  syllable  suddenly  stops 
the  breath ;  as,  T\,  2'>i  -t-,  in  ale,  ajy,  at. 

The  semivowels  arcj^  h,j,  I,  m,  n,  r,  s,  v,  vj,  x,  y,  z,  and  c 
and  ij  soft :  but  w  or  y  at  the  end  of  a-  syllable,  is  a  vo\vel  ; 
and  the  sound  of  c,  f,  g,  h,  j,  s,  or  x,  can  be  protracted  only  aa 
an  aspirate,  or  strong  breath. 

Four  of  tho  semivowels, — I,  m,  n,  and  ?•, — arc  termed  liqidds, 
on  account  of  tho  fluency  of  their  sounds ;  and  four  others, — 
V,  w,  y,  and  z, — arc  l.kewise  more  Tocal  than  the  aspirates. 

The  mutes  are  eight ;  h,  d,  h,  r>,  q,  t,  and  c  and  g  hard  :  threo 
of  these, — k,  q,  and  c  hard, — sound  exactly  alike :  b,  d,  and  g 
hard,  stop  the  voice  less  suddenly  than  the  rest. 

OBSERVATIONS. 

Obs.  1. — The  foregoing  division  of  the  letters  is  of  very  great  antiquity, 
and,  in  rcrtpeet  to  its  principal  features,  sanctioned  by  almost  universal 
authority.  Aristotle,  three  hundred  and  thirty  years  before  Christ,  divided 
the  Greek  letters  into  vowels,  semivowels,  and  mutes,  and  declared  that  no 
syllable  could  be  formed  without  a  vowel.  Some  modern  writers,  however, 
not  well  satisfied  with  this  ancient  distribution  of  the  element-*  of  learning, 
bave  contradicted  the  Stagirite,  and  divided  both  sounds  and  letters  into 
new  classes,  with  various  new  names.  But,  so  far  as  1  can  see,  they  havo 
thereby  effected  no  important  improvement ;  and,  since  mere  innovation  la 
not  in  itself  desirable  in  such  cases,  the  old  scheme  is  here  still  preferred. 

Ob3.  2. — Dr.  Rush,  author  of  "the  Philosophy  of  th.c  Human  Voice,"  re- 
Eolves  the  letters  into  "  tonics,  sultonics,  and  atonies  ;"  and  avers  that  "  con- 
sonants alone  may  form  syllables."  S.  Kirkham  too,  tliough  his  Grammar 
teaches  the  old  doctrine  as  given  by  Murray,  prefers  in  his  Elocution  tho 
iiistructions  of  Rush  ;  disparages  "the  hoary  division  of  the  letters  of  our 
riphabet  into  vowels  and  consonants  ;"  afBrms  that,  "  A  consonant  is  not  only 
capable  of  being  perfectly  sounded  without  the  help  of  a  vowel,  but,  more- 
over, of  forming,  like  a  vowel,  a  separate  syllable;'"'  (p.  32;)  commends 
Rush's  new  "  division  and  classification  of  the  elementary  characters  of  our 
language,  in  accordance  with  their  use  in  intonation  ;"  puts  an  obsolete  k 
into  each  of  the  Doctor's  new  names,  giving  to  novelties  the  garb  of  an- 
tiiiues;  tells  of  "the  Tonicks,  the  Suhtonicks,  and  the  Atonicks  f  and,  undef 
these  three  lieads,  exhibits  his  thirty-five  "  elements"  of  the  English,  tongue, 
by  means  of  lialics  and  the  spliBtiBg  of  syllables,  thus: — 


22  INSTITUTES   OF   ENGLISH   GRAMMAR.       [PART  I. 

1.  "Tlie  Tonicls,  t-welxc:  ^4-te,  a-rk,  a-11,  a-t,  ee-\,  c-rr,  e-nd,  i-do,  i-t, 
o-ld,  oo-ze,  ou-t. 

2.  ^^ The  Subtaiiicks,  fourteen:  ^-oat,  d-are,  g-ilt,  ®-ice,  z-one,  ij-q,  w-o, 
Vi-&t,  a-s-ure,  so-n^,  ^-ate,  m-ate,  n-ot,  r-oc. 

3.  "  The  Atonicks,  nine :  V-p,  a-t,  lar-ifc,  i-/,  tlii-5,  ^-e,  w^-at,  <A-in,  blu-«A." 
— ....Uiarn's  Elocution,  pp.  82  and  83. 

Obs.  3. — Afl  a  mode  of  classing  the  letters  of  tlio  alphabet,  (which  character 
is  claimed  for  it,)  this  arrangement  has  no  fitness  wiiatever.  As  a  classifica- 
tion of  the  sounds  of  the  language,  it  is  less  objectionable,  but  still  very 
fuulty.  Its  vowel  powers  are  too  few,  and  yet  the  list  contains  two  which 
are  questionable :  for  ou  in  end  is  a  proper  diphthong;  and,  according  to 
Walker,  e  in  err  and  e  in  end  are  sounded  alike.  The  term  "  i-dc,"  which  is 
given  for  a  "word,"  is  not  properly  such;  and  the  term  "^-ilt"  is  an  ill 
example  of  the  hard  g,  because  g  before  i  is  usually  soft,  like^.  How  the 
power  of  trh  diflFers  from  the  sounds  of  h  and  w  united,  I  see  not,  though 
sundry  moilern  authors  affirm  that  it  is  sunple  and  elementary.  The  asser- 
tion, that  "consonants  alone  may  form  syllables,"  is  a  flat  absurdity;  it 
implies  that  consonants  are  not  consonants,  but  vowels  ! 

(>BS.  4. — In  Comstock"s  Elocution,  we  have  the  following  statement :  "The 
elements,  as  well  as  the  letters  by  which  they  are  represented,  are  usually 
divided  into  two  classes,  Vou'tls  and  Consonants.  A  more  philosophical 
division,  however,  is  into  three  classes.  Vowels,  Sxcbvowels,  and  Aspirates. 
The  vowels  are  pure  vocal  sounds  ;  their  number  is  fifteen :  they  are  heard  in 
ole,  arm,  all,  an,  eve,  end,  ile,  in,  old,  lose,  on,  t«be,  wp,  fwll,  out.  The  sub- 
vocals  has'C  a  vocality,  but  inferior  to  that  of  the  vowels ;  their  number  is 
fourteen:  they  are  heard  in  ^ow,  di\j,  guy,  light,  7«ind,  Tio,  song,  roll,  then, 
vile,  wo,  yoke,  sonc,  asurc.  The  aspirates  are  made  with  the  whispering 
breath,  and,  consequently,  have  no  vocality ;  they  are  nine  in  number ;  and 
arc  heard  in/ame,  Aut,  Hie.  pit,  sin,  shade,  tin,  thin,  «-7«it." — Pp.  ID  and  20. 

Obs.  5. — This  again  is  a  classification  of  sounds,  and  not  of  the  letters.  To 
call  it  "  a  more  philosophical  division"  of  the  letters,  is  a  ridiculous  absurdity. 
For,  of  the  twenty-six  letters,  it  throws  out  four, — c,J,  q.  and  a!,^becausQ 
their  sounds  may  be  otherwise  expressed  ;  while  ten  repetitions  of  the  same 
letter  with  a  difi'erent  pound,  and  six  combinations  of  different  letters,  mak- 
ing sixteen  unalphabetical  items,  are  allowed  to  swell  the  number  of  "  ele- 
ments" to  thirty-eight:  ou  and  wh  being  improperly  reckoned  among  them. 
The  definitions,  too,  are  each  of  them  inconsistent  with  the  fact  that  all  these 
elements  may  be  either  whispered  or  spoken  aloud,  at  pleasure. 

Obs.  6. — The  elementary  sounds  of  the  language  being  more  numerous 
than  the  letters  of  the  alphabet,  and  not  very  philosophically  distributed 
among  them,  no  accurate  classification  of  cither  species  can  be  exactly  adapted 
to  the  other;  and  to  divide  the  powers  of  the  letters  into  one  set  of  classes, 
and  then  divide  the  letters  themselves,  with  reference  to  their  powers,  into 
an  other  set,  as  a  few  late  writers  have  done,  seems  to  be  neither  free  from 
objection,  nor  very  necessary  to  the  purposes  of  instruction.  Such  is  the 
Bcheme  in  Covell's  "Digest,"  and  also  in  Greene's  "Elements  of  English 
Grammar;"  where  the  sounds  used  in  English,  being  reckoned  forty  by  the 
latter  author,  and  forty-one  by  the  former,  are  divided  into  "  Vocals,  Siih- 
•cocals,  and  Aspirates,^^  with  an  additional  class  of"  Cognates,''''  or  "  Cor^rel- 
atives  f  and  then  the  letters  are  classed  as  '•'■vowels  and  consonants  ;^^  with 
the  suggestion  that  consonants  are  either  "subvocals"  or  "aspirates." 

Obs.  7. — By  way  of  definition,  Covell  says,  "  Vocals  consist  oi pure  ■voic4i 
only.  Subvocals  consist  of  voice  and  breath  united.  Aspirates  consist  of  pure 
breath  only.  A  vowel  is  a  letter  used  to  represent  a  vocal.  A  consonant  is  a 
letter  used  to  represent  a  subvocal  or  aspirate.'''' — Pp.  11  and  16.  Greene 
Bajs,  "  The  vocals  consist  ef  pui-e  tone  only.  The  subvocals  consist  of  tone 
united  with  breath.  The  aspirates  consist  of  pure  breath  only.  Those  letters 
which  represent  vocals  are  called  vowels.  Those  letters  which  represent  sub- 
vocals and  aspirates  are  called  consonants.'''' — Pp.  2  and  5.  Now,  since  all  tho 
elements  of  words,  except  silent  letters,  may  be  whispered,  and  whispering 
consists  in  the  articulation  ^^  of  pure  breath  only^''  may  not  a  little  whispering 
Ehow  the  uBfitnesa  of  &U  these  defiuitious  i 


CHAP.  I.]    ORTHOGKAPnY.— LETTERS.— THEIR  CLASSES.    23 

Ob8.  8. — Greene  says,  "  By  wliat  fnle  such  sounds  as/,  s,  or  c  soft,  whicli 
Lave  no  vocality  whatever,  can  be  called  semivowels,  it  ia  impassible  to  see." 
—Elements  of  E.  Gram.,  p.  8.  This  remark  must  have  originated  in  soma 
■wrong  notion  of  what  vocality  is. .  Again,  it  is  forgotten  that  not  "  sounds," 
but  letters,  are  by  the  definition  made  semivowels.  If  there  ia  any  error  in 
regarding  a  hiss  as  lialf  a  voice,  or  in  calling  "./',  s,  or  c  soft"  a  semivowel, 
Aristotle  himself  is  answerable  for  it,  as  may  be  seen  in  the  twentieth  chap- 
ter of  his  Poetics.  But  S.  S.  Greene  contradicts  the  old  philosopher  not 
only  by  denying  all  vocality  to  some  of  his  semivowels,  but  also  by  finding 
the  nature  of  "  suhvocay  in  both  of  his  examples  of  a  mute;  namely  in  g 
hard  and  d,  or  the  corresponding  Greek  letters.  See  "  Table  of  Elementary 
Sounds,"  in  Greene's  Elements,  edition  of  1853  ;  wherein  our  sibilant  s  is 
blunderingly  stereotyped  as  being  an  element  of  two  or  three  different  sorts, 
and  as  having  v  for  its  "  correlative.'''' 

Obs.  9. — By  an  improper  recognition  of  sounds  for  letters,  and  of  combi- 
nations for  simples,  some  authors  absurdly  reckon  the  consonants  alone  to  bo 
more  numerous  tiian  arc  all  the  alphabetic  characters  together.  Thus  the 
Kev.  Dr.  Mandevillo :  "  A  consonant  is  a  letter  which,  as  the  name  implies, 
cannot  be  sounded  without  tlia  aid  of  a  vowel.  The  consonants  arc  h,  c,  d, 
f,  g,  h,  i,  J,  k,  I,  m,  n,  p,  q,  r,  s,  i,  v,  w,  x,  y,  z  ;  to  which  must  be  added  th, 
'ch,  sh,  zk,  wh,  ng:  being  plainly  {Icmentary  sounds,  and  as  such  helonging  to 
the  alphabet,  though  not  formally  included  in  it." — Course  of  Beading,  p.  13. 

Oi5S.  10. — The  distinction  between  vowels  and  consonants  is  generally 
obvious  and  easy  enough ;  and  yet,  in  reference  to  certain  sounds  or  letters, 
•when  not  pure,  but  combined,  it  is  often  very  difficult  and  arbitrary.  Somo 
few  of  our  grammarians  have  long  taught  that  w  and  y,  as  well  as  a,  e,  i,  o, 
tt,  are  always  vowels.  The  most  common  doctrine  is,  that  w  and  y  are  some- 
times vowels  and  sometimes  consonants,  and  that  a,  e,  i,  o,  and  u,  are  always 
vowels.  But,  the  sound  of  initial  w  being  thought  to  be  sometimes  heard  in 
V,  likewise  in  o,  and  the  sound  of  initial  y  sometimes  in  e,  or  i,  or  u,  somo 
writers  have  recognized  one ;  some,  two  ;  some,  three ;  end  a  few,  all  four, 
of  these  letters,  as  wjU  as  w  and  y,  as  being  sometimes  consonants ;  thus 
making  a  vast  diver,  i  y  of  teaching  concerning  the  classification  of  the  six — • 
a  diversity  which  alto  extends  itself  equally  into  each  of  the  new  schemes 
©f  elements  remarked  iipon  above. 

Obs.  11. — Dr.  Lowth,  and  his  improver,  Churchill,  also  Sheridan,  and  his 
copier,  Jones,  represent  a,  e,  i,  o,  v,  w,  and  yus.  being  invariably  vowels,  and 
RS  having  no  souids  peculiar  to  consonants.  This  opinion  makes  easy  and 
fiimple  the  division  ot  the  letters,  but  it  greatly  swells  the  number  of  diph- 
thongs, shows  n  jt  why  the  initial  w  or  y  follows  a  vowel  without  hiatus,  and 
accounts  not  for  the  use  of  a,  in  preference  to  an,  before  nouns  beginning 
with  w  or  y :  as,  a  tcall,  a  yard  ;  not  an  wall,  an  yard. 

0b3.  12.— Dr.  Webster,  in  his  great  American  Dictionary,  says,  "1^  is 
Bometimes  used  as  a  consonant." — Introd.,  p.  Lxxviii.  Concerning  a,  e,  i,  o,  u, 
and  w,  he  appears  to  agree  with  Lowth,  and  the  others  above  named. 
Fisher,  a  London  grammarian  of  the  last  century,  treated  w  as  being  always 
a  consonant,  and  y  as  being  sometimes  such.  Brightland,  Johnson,  Murray, 
AValker,  Ward  Wells,  Worcester,  and  others, — a  majority  of  those  who  treat 
of  the  letters, — maintain  the  division  which  I  have  adopted  above. 

Obs.  13. — Dr.  Mandevillo  »pays,  "  /,  y,  and  w,  are  sometimes  consonants." 
—  Course  of  Reading,  p.  9.  Dr.  Pinneo,  uttering  a  strange  solecism,  and  am- 
biguity of  construction,  says,  "  All  the  letters  of  the  alphabet,  except  tl^o 
vowels,  and  sometimes  i,  u,  w,  and  y,  are  consonants." — Analytical  Gram., 
Htereotype  Edition  of  1853,  p.  7.  L.  T.  Covell  says,  "  All,  except  a,  may  bo 
consonants." — Digest  of  E.  Gram.,  p.  16. 

Obs.  14. — Sheridan  and  Jones  divide  the  consonants  into  mutes  and  semi- 
vowels, then  subdivide  the  mutes  into  '■'■pure  and  impure^''  and  the  semi- 
vowels into  "  vocal  and  aspirated.''''  In  lieu  of  this,  some,  among  whom  are 
Ilerries  and  Bicknell,  divide  the  consonants  into  three  sorts,  '■'■  half  vowels, 
aspirates,  and  mutes.''''  Many  divide  them  into  labials,  dentals.  Unguals,  palor- 
tals,  and  nasals ;  classes  which  refer  to  the  lips,  teeth,  tongue,  palate,  aud 
nose,  as  the  effective  organs  of  their  utterance. 


24  INSTITUTES   OF  ENGLISH   GRAMMAE.        [PART  L 

Obs,  15. — Certain  consonants  or  consonantal  sounds  are  often  distinguished 
in  pairs,  by  way  of  contrast  with  each  other,  the  one  being  called  Jlat  and 
the  other  sharp :  as,  h  and  j3  ;  d  and  t ;  <j  hard  and  k  ;  J  and  ch  ;  v  aady,"  iA 
flat  and  th  sharp ;  z  and  sharp  s  ;  zh  and  sli.  These,  with  reference  to  each 
other,  are  sometimes  termed  correlatives  of  cognates. 

III.  POWERS  OF  THE  LETTERS. 

lihe  jwiaers  of  the  letters  are  properly  those  element- 
ary sounds  which  their  figures  are  used  to  represent ; 
but  letters  formed  into  words,  are  capable  of  communi- 
cating thought  independently  of  sound. 

The  vowel  sounds  which  form  the  basis  of  the  English 
language,  and  which  ought  therefore  to  be  perfectly 
familiar  to  every  one  who  speaks  it,  are  those  wliicli  are 
heard  at  the  beginning  of  the  words,  afe,  at,  ah,  all,  eel, 
ell,  isle,  ill,  old,  on,  ooze,  use,  us,  and  that  of  it  in  bull. 

In  the  formation  of  words  or  syllables,  some  of  these 
fourteen  primary  sounds  may  be  joined  together,  as  in 
oy,  oil,  out,  owl ;  and  all  of  them  may  be  preceded  or 
followed  by  certain  motions  and  positions  of  the  lips 
and  tongue,  which  will  severally  convert  them  into 
other  terms  in  speech.  Thus  the  same  essential  sounds 
may  be  changed  into  a  ncAV  series  of  Avords  by  an/;  as, 
fate,  fat,  far,  fall,  feel,  fell,  file,  fill,  fold,  fond,  fool,  fuse, 
fuss,  full.  Again,  into  as  many  more  with  a  ^:>;  as,  j:)a'e, 
pat,  2^ci^',  ImU,  peel,  p)ell,  p>ile,  pill,  j^ole-  p)ond,  pool,  pule, 
purl,  pxdl. 

The  simple  consonant  sounds  in  English  are  twenty- 
two  :  they  are  marked  by  /;,  d,f,  g  hard,  h,  k,  I,  rn,  n,  ng, 
p,  r,  s,  sh,  t,  th  sharp,  th  flat,  v,  w,  y,  z,  and  zh.  But  zh 
is  written  only  to  show  the  sound  of  other  letters  ;  as  of 
s  in  pleasure,  or  z  in  azure. 

All  these  sounds  are  heard  distinctly  in  the  following 
words:  huy,  die,  fie,  guy,  high,  hie,  lie,  my,  nigh,  eying, 
p)ie,  rye,  sigh,  shy,  tie,  thigh,  thy,  vie,  we,  ye,  zebra,  seizure.  ■ 
Again :  most  of  them  may  be  repeated  in  the  same 
word,  if  not  in  the  same  syllable ;  as  in  bibber,  diddle, 
fifty,  giggle,  Idgh-hung,  cackle,  lily,  vninxic,  ninny,  singing, 
pjipjpin,  mirror,  hissest,  fieshbrush,  tittle,  tJdnkelh,  thither, 
vivid,  witival,  union,  dizzies,  vision. 

The  possible  combinations  and  mutations  of  the 
twent3'-six  letters  of  our  alphabet,  are  many  millions  of 
millions.     But  those  clusters  which  are  unpronoun*a- 


CHAP.  I.]    ORTHOGRAPHY.— LETTERS.— THEIR  POWERS.    25 

able,  arc  -useless.  Of  such  as  may  be  easily  uttered, 
there  are  more  than  enough  for  all  the  purposes  of  use- 
ful writing,  or  the  recording  of  speech. 

Thus  it  is,  that  from  principles  so  few  and  simple  as 
about  six  or  seven  and  thirty  plain  elementary  sounds, 
represented  by  characters  still  fewer,  we  derive  such  a 
variety  of  oral  and  written  signs,  as  may  suffice  to  ex- 
plain or  record  all  the  sentiments  and  transactions  of  all 
men  in  all  ages, 

OBSERVATIONS. 

Oes.  1. — Different  vowel  sounds  are  produced  by  opening  the  mouth  dif- 
ferently, and  placing  the  tongue  in  a  peculiar  manner  for  each ;  but  tlie 
voice  may  vary  in  loudness,  pitch,  or  time,  and  still  utter  the  same  vowel 
power. 

0b3.  2. — Each  of  the  vowel  sounds  may  be  variously  expressed  by  letters. 
About  half  of  them  are  sometimes  words  :  the  rest  are  seldom,  if  ever,  used 
alone  even  to  form  syllables.  But  the  reader  may  easily  learn  to  utter  them 
all,  separately,  according  to  the  foregoing  series.  Let  us  note  them  as 
plainly  as  possible  :  eigh,  S.,  ah,  awe,  eh,  e,  eye,  i,  oh,  6,  oo,  yew,  u,  u. 
Tlius  the  eight  long  sounds,  eigh^  ah,  awe,  eh,  eye,  oh,  ooh,  yew,  are,  or  may 
be  words ;  but  the  six  less  vocal,  called  the  short  vowel  sounds,  as  in  at,  et, 
it,  ot,  ut,  put,  are  commonly  heard  only  in  connexion  with  consonants  ;  ex- 
cept tlie  tirst,  which  is  perhaps  the  most  frequent  sound  of  the  vowel  A  or 
a — a  sound  sometimes  given  to  the  wo?'d  a,  perhaps  most  generally ;  as  in 
the  phrase,  "  twice  a  day." 

Obs.  S. — With  us,  the  consonants  J  and  X  represent,  not  simple,  but  com- 
plex sounds  :  hence  they  are  never  doubled.  J  is  equivalent  to  dzh  ;  and 
X,  either  to  ks  or  to  gz.  The  former  ends  no  English  word,  and  the  latter 
begins  none.  To  tlie  initial  X  of  foreign  words,  we  always  give  the  simple 
sound  of  Z  ;  as  in  Xerxes,  xebec. 

Obs.  4. — The  consonants  C  and  Q  have  no  sounds  peculiar  to  themselves. 
Q  has  always  the  pov/er  of  k,  and  is  constantly  followed  by  «  and  some 
vowel  or  two  more  in  the  same  syllable  ;  as  in  quake,  quest,  quit,  quoit.  C  is 
hard,  like  k,  before  a,  o,  and  u  ;  and  soft,  like  s,  before  e,  i,  and  y:  thus  the 
syllables  ca,  ce,  cl,  co,  cu,  cy,  are  pronounced  ka,  se,  si,  ko,  ku,  »y.  S  before 
c  preserves  the  former  sound,  but  coalesces  with  the  latter  ;  lience  the  sylla- 
bles, sea,  see,  sci,  sco,  sou,  scy,  are  sounded  ska,  se,  si,  sko,  sku,  sy.  Ce  and  ci 
have  sometimes  tlie  sound  of  sh  ;  as  in  o-^ean,  social.  Ch  commonly  repre- 
eents  the  sound  oitsh  ;  as  in  church. 

Obs.  5. — G,  as  well  as  C,  has  different  sounds  before  different  vowels.  G 
is  always  hard,  or  guttural,  before  a,  o,  and  u ;  and  generally  soft,  like_;,  be- 
fore e,  i,  or  y :  thus  the  syllables,  ga,  ge,  gi,  go,  gu,  gy,  are  pronounced  ga, 
Je,  Ji,  go,  gu,  jy. 

Obs.  6. — The  imperfections  of  the  English  alphabet  have  been  the  subject 
of  much  comment,  and  sundry  schemes  for  its  reformation  have  successively 
appeared  and  disappeared  witliout  effecting  the  purpose  of  any  one  of  tlieir 
authors.  It  has  been  thouglit  that  there  ought  to  be  one  character,  and  only 
one,  for  each  simple  sound  in  the  language  ;  but,  in  attempting  to  count  tlie 
several  elementary  sounds  which  we  use,  our  orthoepists  have  arrived  at  a 
remarkable  diversity  of  conclusions.  Bieknell,  copying  Martin's  Physico- 
Grammatical  Essay,  says,  "The  simple  sounds,"  originally  necessary  to 
speech,  "  were  in  no  wise  to  be  reckoned  of  any  certain  number :  by  the 
firet  men  they  were  determined  to  no  more  than  ten,  as  some  suppose  ;  as 
others,  fifteen  or  twenty ;  it  is  however  certain  that  mankind  in  general 
never  exceed  twenty  simple  sounds  ;  and  of  these  only  ^'ye  are  reckoned  strictly 
Buch." — BicknelVs  Gram.,  Part  ii,  p.  4. 

Obs.  7. — The  number  of  oral  elements  is  differently  reckoned  by  out 

2 


26  INSTITUTES  OF  ilNGLISH  GRAMMAE.        [PART  I. 

critics,  because  they  do  not  agree  among  themselves  concerning  the  identity 
or  the  simpheity,  the  sameness  or  the  singleness,  of  some  of  the  sounds  ia 
question  ;  and  ulso  because  it  is  the  practice  of  all,  or  nearly  all,  to  admit  a» 
elementary  some  sounds  which  diti'er  from  each  other  only  in  length orshort^ 
ness,  and  some  which  are  not  conceived  to  be  entirely  simple  in  themselves. 
The  circumstances  of  the  case  seem  to  make  it  impossible  to  find  out /or  a 
certainty  what  would  be  a  perfect  alphabet  for  our  tongue. 

Ob3.  8. — Sheridan,  taking  i  and  u  for  diphthougs,  h  for  "  no  letter,"  and 
the  power  of  A  for  no  sound,  made  the  elements  of  his  oratory  twenty-eight. 
Jones  followed  him  implicitly,  saying,  "The  number  of  simjilc  sounds  in 
our  tonguf  is  twenty-eight,  9  Vowels,  and  19  Consonants.  H  is  no  letter,  but 
merely  a  mark  of  aspiration."— Pro«ofi?ia^  Gram.,  p.  xiv.  Bolles  says,  "  Tlio 
number  of  simple  vowel  and  consonant  sounds  in  our  tongue  is  twenty- 
eight,  and  one  pure  aspiration  Ti,  making  in  all  twenty-nine." — Octavo  Diet., 
Introd.,  p.  9.  Walker  recognized  several  more  ;  but  I  know  not  whether  he 
has  anywhere  told  us  how  many  there  are. 

Obs.  9. — Lindley  Murray  enumerates  at  first  thirty-six  wqW  known  sounds, 
and  the  same  thirty-si.x  that  are  given  in  the  main  text  above ;  but  he  after- 
wards, contradicting  certain  teachings  of  his  Spelling-Book,  acknowledges 
one  mare,  making  thirty-seven — tlie  third  sound  of  e — "An  obscure  and 
scarcely  perceptible  sound :  as  in  open,  lucre,  participle.'''' — Gram.,  p.  11. 
Comstoek,  who  does  not  admit  the  obscure  e,  says,  "  There  are  thirty-eight 
eZeme/ife  in  the  English  alphabet,  and  *  *  *  a  deficiency  of  fe'e^««  to/^rs." 
— Elocution,  p.  19.  Wells,  deducting  C,  Q,  and  X,  says,  "The  remaining 
twenty-three  letters  are  employed  to  represent  about  forty  elementary  sounds." 
School  Gram.,  113th  Th.,  p.  42.  His  first  edition  stated  the  number  of 
sounds  to  be  '■'■forty-one.'''' — F.  86. 

Obs.  10. — For  the  sake  of  the  general  principle,  which  wc  always  regard 
in  writing,  a  principle  of  universal  grammar,  as  old  at  least  as  the  writings 
of  Aristotle,  that  tliere  can  be  no  syllable  without  a  roivel,  or  without  soma 
vowel  power,  I  am  inclined  to  teach,  with  Brightland,  Dr.  Johnson,  L.  Mur- 
ray, and  otliers,  that,  in  English,  as  in  French,  there  is  given  to  the  vowel  e, 
in  some  unaccented  syllables  a  certain  very  obscure  sound,  which  approaches, 
but  amounts  not  to  an  absolute  suppression,  though  it  is  commonly  so  re- 

farded  by  the  writers  of  our  dictionaries.     See  Murray's  examples  above, 
f  the  e  in  '■'•open''''  or  able  be  supposed  to  b.ave  some  faint  sound,  the  oral 
elements  of  our  language  may  "be  reckoned  thirty-seven. 

Obs.  11. — It  is  also  a  general  principle,  necessarily  following  from  this, 
that,  where  the  vowel  oi"  a  syllable  is  suppressed  or  left  entirely  mute,  any 
part  which  remains,  of  such  syllable,  fidls  to  another  vo\v«l,  and  becomes 
part  of  another  syllable:  thus  Cowper,  in  the  phrase  '■'■''T'ts  desp^rate,^''  re- 
duces five  syllables  to  three.  But  Wells,  in  arguing  against  the  comnioa 
definition  of  a  consonant,  says,  "  We  have  many  syllables  in  which  tha 
vowel,  though  written,  is  not  heard  at  all  in  pronunciation,  as  in  the  words 
taken,  burdened,  which  are  pronounced  iah-n,  hurd-nd.''^  And  he  adds, 
"  There  are  instances,  also,  in  which  a  consonant  is  sounded  as  a  distinct  syl' 
lable,  without  the  use  even  of  a  wi-itten  vowel,  as  in  the  words  chas-m, 
rhuth-m.^^ — School  Gram.,  p.  31.  Here  a  very  excellent  teacher  evidently  in- 
culcates error ;  for  chasm,  rhythm,  or  even  chasmed,  is  only  a  monosyllable,  and 
to  call  a  consonant  a  syllable,  is  a  contradiction  iu  terms. 


IV.  FORMS  OF  TPIE  LETTERS. 

In  the  Englisli  language,  the  Roman  characters  are 
generally  employed ;  sometimes,  the  Italic ;  and  occa- 
sionally,   the'cOlb   CEncjlisI).      In   writing^   we  use  the 


(^m//a. 


CHAP.  I.]    ORTHOGRAPHy.—LETTEKS.— THEIR  FORMS.        27 

The  letters  have  severally  two  fonns,  by  whicli  tliey 
are  distinguished  as  capitals  and  small  letters. 

Small  letters  constitute  the  body  of  every  work ;  and 
capitals  arc  used,  for  the  sake  of  eminence  and  distinction, 

BULES  FOE  TEE  USE  OF  CAPITALS 

RULE    I. TITLES    OF    BOOKS. 

The  titles  of  books,  and  the  heads  of  their  principal  divisions, 
should  be  printed  in  capitals.  When  books  are  merely  men- 
tioned, the  chief  Avords  in  their  titles  begin  with  capitals,  and 
the  other  letters  are  small ;  as,  "  Pope's  Essay  on  Man." 

RULE    II. FIRST    WORDS. 

The  first  word  of  every  distinct  sentence,  or  of  any  clause 
separately  numbered  or  paragraphed,  should  begin  with  a 
capital. 

RUI        III. NAMES    OF    DEITY". 

All  names  of  the  Deity  should  begin  with  capitals ;  as,  God, 
Jehovah,  the  Almighty,  the  Supreme  Being. 

RULE    IV. PROPER    NAMES. 

Titles  of  ofiice  or  honour,  and  proper  names  of  every  de- 
scription, should  begin  with  capitals;  as.  Chief  Justice  Hale, 
William,  London,  the  Park,  the  Albion,  the  Spectator,  the 
Thames. 

RULE    V. OBJECTS    PERSONIFIED. 

The  name  of  an  object' personified,  when  it  conveys  an  idea 
strictly  individual,  should  begin  with  a  capital  ;  as, 

"  Come,  gentle  Spring,  ethereal  mildness,  come. 

RULE    VI. WORDS    DERIVED. 

Words  derived  from  proper  names  of  persons  or  places, 
should  begin  with  capitals ;  as,  Newtonian,  Grecian,  Roman. 

RULE   VII. 1    AND    O. 

The  words  /and  0  should  always  be  capitals;  as,  "  Out  of 
the  depths  have  /cried  unto  thee  0  Lord." — Psalms,  cxxx,  1. 

RULE    VIII. IN    POETRY. 

Every  line  in  poetry,  except  what  is  regarded  as  making 
but  one  verse  with  the  line  preceding,  should  begin  with  a 
capital ;  as, 

"  Our  sons  their  fathers'  failing  language  see, 
And  such  as  Chaucer  is,  shall  Dryden  be." — Pope. 


28                INSTITUTES  OF  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.        [PART  I. 
RULE    IX. EXAMPLES,  ETC. 

A  full  example,  a  distinct  speech,  or  a  direct  quotation, 
should  begin  with  a  capital ;  as,  "  Remember  this  maxim : 
*  Know  thyself.'" — "Virgil  says,  'Labour  conquers  all  things.'" 

RULE    X. CHIEF  WORDS. 

Other  words  of  particular  importance,  and  such  as  denote 
the  principal  subjects  of  discourse,  may  be  distinguished  by 
capitals.     Proper  names  frequently  have  capitals  throughout. 


CHAPTEE  II.— OF  SYLLABLES. 

A  Syllable  is  one  or  more  letters  pronounced  in  one 
sonnd,  and  is  either  a  word  or  a  part  of  a  word ;  as,  a, 
an,  ant. 

In  every  word  there  are  as  many  syllables  as  there 
are  distinct  sounds  ;  as,  gram-ma-ri-an. 

A  word  of  one  syllable  is  called  a  monosyllable;  a 
word  of  two  syllables,  a  dissyllable  ;  a  word  of  three  syl- 
lables, a  trissyllahle ;  and  a  word  of  four  or  more  sylla- 
bles, a  jpolysyllahle. 

DIPHTHONGS   AND   TRIPHTHONGS. 

A  diphthong  is  two  vowels  joined  iu  one  syllable ;  as, 
ea  in  beat,  ou  in  sound. 

A  proper  diphthong,  is  a  diphthong  in  which  both  the 
vowels  are  sounded  ;  as,  oi  ia  voice. 

An  improper  diphthong,  is  a  diphthong  in  which  only 
one  of  the  vowels  is  sounded ;  as,  oa  in  loaf. 

A  triphthong  is  three  vowels  joined  in  one  syllable; 
as,  eau  in  beau,  iew  in  view. 

A.  proper  triphthong,  is  a  triphthong  in  which  all  the 
vowels  are  sounded ;  as,  uoy  in  buoy. 

An  improper  triphthong,  is  a  triphthong  in  which  only 
one  or  two  of  the  vowels  are  sounded  ;  as,  eau  in  beautyy 
iou  in  anxious. 

SYLLABICATION. 

In  dividing  words  into  sjdlables,  we  are  to  be  directed 
chiefly  by  the  ear ;  it  may  however  be  proper  to  ob- 
serve, as  far  as  practicable,  the  following  rules. 


CHAP.  III.]              ORTHOGRAPHY.— WORDS.  29 

RULE    I. CONSONANTS. 

Consonants  should  generally  be  joined  to  the  vowels  of 
diphthongs  which  they  modify  in  utterance ;  as,  ap-os-tol-i-caU 

RULE    II. VOWELS, 

Two  vowels,  coming  together,  if  they  make  not  a  diphthong, 
must  be  parted  in  dividing  the  syllables  ;  as,  a-e-ri-al.  j 

RULE    III. TERMINATIONS. 

Derivative  and  grammatical  terminations  should  generally 
be  separated  from  the  radical  words  to  which  they  have  been 
added  ;  as,  harm-less,  great-ly,  con-nect-ed. 

RULE    IV. PREFIXES. 

Prefixes  in  general  form  separate  syllables ;  as,  mis-place, 
out-ride,  up-lift :  but  if  their  own  primitive  meaning  be  disre- 
garded, the  case  may  be  otherwise  ;  thus  re-create  and  rec-reate 
are  words  of  different  import. 

RULE    V. COMPOUNDS. 

Compounds,  when  divided,  should  be  divided  into  the  simple 
words  which  compose  them  ;  as,  no-where. 

RULE    VI. LINES    FULL. 

At  the  end  of  a  line,  a  word  may  be  divided,  if  necessary ; 
but  a  syllable  must  never  be  broken. 


CHAPTEE  in.— OF  WOEDS. 

A  Word  is  one  or  more  syllables  spoken  or  •written 
as  the  sign  of  some  idea,  or  of  some  manner  of  thought. 

SPECIES  AND   FIGURE   OF  WORDS. 

Words  are  distinguished  as  primitive  or  derivative,  and 
as  simple  or  comjwund.  The  former  division  is  called 
their  species  ;  the  latter,  \hQ\r  figure. 

A  primitive  word  is  one  that  is  not  formed  from  any 
simpler  word  in  the  language  ;  as,  harm,  great,  connect. 

A  derivative  word  is  one  that  is  formed  from  soma 
simpler  word  in  the  language  ;  as,  harmless^  greatly,  con- 
nected, disconnect,  unconnected. 

3* 


30  INSTITUTES   OP  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.       [PART  L 

A  simple  word  is  one  that  is  not  compounded,  not 
composed  of  other  words ;  as,  watch,  man,  never,  the,  less. 

A  compound  word  is  one  that  is  composed  of  two  or 
more  simple  words  ;  as,  watchman,  nevertheless. 

Permanent  compounds  are  consolidated ;  as,  hooh- 
seller,  schoolmaster :  others,  which  maj  be  called  tempo- 
rary compounds,  are  formed  by  the  hyphen  ;  as,  glass- 
house,  negro-merchant. 

RULES  FOR  TEE  FIGURE  OF  WORDS.  • 
RULE   I. COMPOUNDS. 

"Words  regularly  or  analogically  united,  and  commonly 
known  as  forming  a  compound,  should  never  be  needlessly 
broken  apart. 

RULE    II. SIMPLES. 

When  the  simple  words  would  only  form  a  regular  phrase, 
of  the  same  meaning,  the  compounding  of  any  of  them  ought 
to  be  avoided. 

RULE    III. THE    SENSE. 

Words  otherwise  liable  to  be  misunderstood,  must  be  joined 
together  or  written  separately,  as  the  sense  and  construction 
■may  happen  to  require. 

RULE    IV. ELLIPSES. 

When  two  or  more  compounds  are  connected  in  one  sen- 
tence, none  of  them  should  be  split  to  make  an  ellipsis  of  half 
a  word. 

RULE    V. THE    HYPHEN. 

When  the  parts  of  a  compound  do  not  fully  coalesce,  as  to- 
day,  to-night,  to-morrow ;  or  when  each  retains  its  original 
accent,  so  that  the  compound  has  more  than  one,  or  one  that 
is  movable,  as  first-born,  hanger-on,  laughter-loving ^  the  hyphen 
chould  be  inserted  between  them. 

RULE    VI. NO    HYPHEN. 

When  a  compound  has  but  one  accented  syllable  in  pro- 
nunciation, as  watchword,  statesman,  gentleman,  and  the  parts 
are  such  as  admit  of  a  complete  coalescence,  no  hjphen  should 
be  inserted  between  them. 


CHAP,  lY.]  ORTnOGRAPHY— SPELLING.  81 


CHAPTER  IV.— OF  SPELLING. 

Spelling  is  the  art  of  expressing  words  by  their  propel? 
letters. 

Ob9. — This  important  art  is  to  be  acquired  rather  by  means  of  the  spellin.er-. 
book  or  dictionary,  and  by  observation  in  readin^;,  than  by  the  study  of 
written  rules.  The  orthography  of  our  language  is  attended  with  much  un- 
certainty and  perplexity:  many  words  are  variously  spelled  by  the  best 
scholars,  and  many  others  are  not  usually  written  according  to  the  analogy 
of  similar  words.  But  to  be  ignorant  of  the  orthography  of  such  words  a» 
are  uniformly  spelled  and  frequently  used,  is  justly  considered  disgraceful. 
The  following  rules  may  prevent  some  embarrassment,  aud  thus  bo  of  serv- 
ice to  those  who  wish  to  be  accurate. 

BULES  FOR  SPELLING. 
RULE    I. FINAL    F,    L,    OR    8. 

Monosyllables  ending  in  /,  I,  or  s,  preceded  by  a  single 
vowel,  double  the  final  consonant  ;  as,  staff,  mill,  pass :  ex- 
cept three  in  f—clef,  if,  of;  four  in  l—bul,  mil,  sal,  sol ;  and 
eleven  in  s — as,  gas,  has,  was,  yes,  is,  his,  this,  us,  thus,  pus. 

BULK    II. OTHER    FINALS. 

"Words  ending  in  any  other  consonant  than/,  I,  or  s,  do  not 
double  the  final  letter  :  except  abb,  ebb,  add,  odd,  egg,  inn,  err^ 
burr,  purr,  yarr,  butt,  buzz,  fuzz,  and  some  proper  names. 

RULE    III. DOUBLING. 

Monosyllables,  and  words  accented  on  the  last  syllable,  when 
they  end  with  a  single  consonant  preceded  by  a  single  vowel, 
or  by  a  vowel  after  qu,  double  their  final  consonant  before  an 
additional  syllable  that  begins  with  a  vowel :  ViS,  rob,  robber ; 
permit,  permitting  ;   acquit,  acquittal,  acquitting. 

Exc. — X  final,  being  equivalent  to  ks,  is  never  doubled. 

RULE    IV. NO    DOUBLING. 

A  final  consonant,  when  it  is  not  preceded  by  a  singlo 
vowel,  or  when  the  accent  is  not  on  the  last  syllable,  should 
remain  single  before  an  additional  syllabic:  as,  toil,  toiling ; 
visit,  visited  ;  general,  generalize. 

Exc. — But  I  and  s  final  are  usually  doubled,  (though  per- 
haps  improperly.)  when  the  last  syllable  is  not  accented  :  as, 
travel,  traveller  ;  bias,  biassed. 

RULE    V. RETAINING. 

Words  ending  with  any  double  letter,  preserve  it  double 


82  INSTITUTES   OF  ENGLISH   GRAMMAE.       [PART  I. 

before  any  additional  termination,  not  beginning  with  the  same 
letter  ;  as  in  the  following  derivatives  :  seeing^  blissful,  oddhj^ 
hilly,  stiffness,  illness,  smallness,  carelessness,  agreement,  agree' 
able. 

Exc. — ^The  irregular  words,  jled,  sold,  told,  dwelt,  spelt,  spilt, 
shalt,  wilt,  blest,  past,  and  the  derivatives  from  the  word 
pontiff,  are  exceptions  to  this  rule. 

RULE   VI. FINAL   E. 

The  final  e  mute  of  a  primitive  word,  is  generally  omitted 
before  an  additional  termination  beginning  with  a  vowel :  as, 
rate,  ratable  ;  force,  forcible  ;  rave,  raving  ;  eye,  eying. 

Exc. — Words  ending  in  ce  or  ge,  retain  the  e  before  able  or 
ous,  to  preserve  the  soft  sounds  of  c  and  g :  as,  peace,  peace- 
able ;  change,  changeable  ;  outrage,  outrageous. 

RULE   VII. FINAL    E. 

The  final  e  of  a  primitive  word,  is  generally  retained  before 
an  additional  termination  beginning  with  a  consonant :  as,  pale, 
pale7iess;  lodge,  lodgement. 

Exc. — When  the  e  is  preceded  by  a  vowel,  it  is  sometimes 
omitted;  as,  true,  truly  ;  awe,  awful:  and  sometimes  retained; 
as,  rue,  rueful;  shoe,  shoeless. 

RULE    VIII. FINAL   T. 

The  final  y  of  a  primitive  word,  when  preceded  by  a  conso- 
nant, is  changed  into  i  before  an  additional  termination ;  as, 
merry,  men'ier,  merriest,  merrily,  merriment ;  pity,  pitied,  pities, 
pitiest,  pitiless,  pitiful,  pitiable. 

Exc. — Before  iiig,  y  is  retained  to  prevent  the  doubling  of 
i  ;  as,  pity,  pitying.  Words  ending  in  ie,  dropping  the  e  by 
Rule  6th,  change  i  into  y,  for  the  same  reason ;  as,  die,  dying. 

Obs. — When  a  vowel  precedes,  y  shonlcl  not  be  changed :  as,  day,  days} 
valley,  valleys  ;  money,  mcmeys  ;  monkey,  jnonkeys.  ~ 

RULE    IX. COMPOUNDS. 

Compounds  generally  retain  the  orthography  of  the  simple 
words  Avhich  compose  them ;  as,  hereof,  wherein,  horseman,  re- 
call, uphill,  shellfish. 

Exc, — In  permanent  compounds,  the  words /m?^  and  a/Z  drop 
one  I ;  as,  handful,  careful,  always,  withal :  in  others,  they  re- 
tain both  ;  as,  full-eyed,  all-wise,  save-all. 

Ob9. — Other  words  ending  in  II,  Pometimes  improperly  drop  one  I,  ■when 
taken  into  composition  ;  as,  miscal,  d&wnhU.  This  excision  is  reprehensible, 
because  it  is  contrary  to  general  analogy,  and  because  both  letters  are  ueces- 
eary  to  preserve  the  sound,  and  show  the  derivation  of  the  compoundt 


CHAP,  v.]  ORTHOGIlAPnY.— QUESTIONS.  33. 

"Where  is  the  consistency  of  ^vriting,  recall,  miscal, — inthrall,  hethral, — wind- 
fall, dmiinfal, — laystall,  thumbstdl^—^iateTfall,  overfal, — molehiU,  dunghil, — 
vjlndmill,  twibil,—clodpoll,  enrol?  [See  Johnson's  Dictionary,  first  Ameri- 
can ed.  4to.] 


CHAPTER  v.— EXAMINATION. 


LESSON  I. — GENERAIi   DmsiON. 


What  is  English  Grammar  ? 
How  is  it  divided  ? 
Of  what  does  Orthogrraphy  treat? 
Of  what  does  Etymology  treat  ? 
Of  what  does  Syntax  treat? 
Of  what  does  Prosody  treat  ? 

QUESTIONS  ON  ORTHOGRAPHY. 

LESSON  n. — LETTEKS. 

Of  what  does  Orthography  treat? 

"What  is  a  Lettei-  ? 

"What  is  an  elementary  sound  of  a  word? 

"What  name  is  given  to  the  sound  of  a  letter?  and  what  epithet,  to  a  letter 

not  sounded  ? 
How  many  letters  are  there  in  English  ?  and  how  many  sounds  do  they 

represent? 
In  what  does  a  knowledge  of  the  letters  consist? 
"What  variety  is  noticed  in  letters  that  are  always  the  same  ? 
What  different  sorts  of  types,  or  letters,  are  used  in  English  ? 
TVhat  are  the  names  of  the  letters  in  English? 
Which  of  the  letters  name  themselves  ?  and  which  do  not  ? 
What  are  the  names  of  all  in  both  numbers,  singular  and  plural  ? 

LESSON   in. — CLASSES  OF  LEITEES. 

Into  what  general  classes  are  the  letters  divided? 

What  is  a  vowel  ? 

What  is  a  consonant  ? 

What  letters  are  vowels  ?  and  what,  consonants  ? 

When  are  w  and  y  consonants  ?  and  when  vowels? 

How  are  the  consonants  divided  ? 

What  is  a  semivowel? 

What  is  a  mute? 

What  letters  are  semivowels?  and  which  of  these  are  aspirates? 

What  letters  are  called  liquids,  and  why  ? 

How  many  and  which  are  the  letters  reckoned  mutes  ? 

LESSON  rV. — POWEES,   OR  SOTJNDS. 

What  is  meant,  when  we  speak  of  "  the  jjoicers  of  the  letters  ?" 

In  what  series  of  short  words  are  heard  our  chief  vowel  sounds? 

How  may  these  sounds  be  modified  to  form  words  or  syllables? 

Can  you  form  a  word  from  each  by  means  of  an/? 

Will  you  form  an  other  such  series  with  a  jt>  ? 

How  many  and  what  are  the  consonant  sounds  in  English  ? 

In  what  series  of  words  may  all  these  sounds  be  heard  ? 

In  what  series  of  words  is  e'ach  of  them  heard  more  than  once  2 

Do  our  letters  admit  of  combinations  enough  ? 

What  do  we  derive  from  these  elements  of  language? 


Si  INSTITUTES   OF  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR.        [PARTl. 

IXSSOX  V. — rOKM3  OF  TJIE  LETTEKS. 

Wliat  is  said  of  the  employment  of  the  several  styles  of  letters  in  English  f 

"What  distinction  of  form  do  we  make  in  each  of  the  letters  ? 

Wl.rit  is  said  of  small  letters  ?  and  wliy  are  capitals  used  ? 

How  many  rules  for  capitals  are  given"?  and  what  are  their  heads  ? 

What  says  Kule  1st  of  titles  of  books  ?—llu]e  2d  o?  first  uords  ?—'Bi\x\(>  Sd  of 
names  of  Deity? — Rule  4th  of  proper  names/ — Eiile  5th  of  objects  per soni' 
Jiedf — Rule  6th  of  ^cords  derived? — Rule  7th  of  /  and  O.?— Rulo  8th  of 
foetry? — Rule  'iX.h.oi  examples,  &c.  ? — Rule  10th  ot  chief  uvrds  ? 

LESSON  VI. — SYLLABLES. 

What  is  a  syllable  ? 

Can  the  syllables  of  .1  word  be  perceived  by  the  ear  ? 

What  is  a  word  of  one  syllable  called  ? — a  word  of  two  ? — of  three  ? — of  four 
or  more  ? 

What  is  a  diphthong  ? 

What  is  a  proper  diplithong  ?— an  improper  diphthong  ! 

What  is  a  triphthong  ? 

What  is  a  proper  triphthong? — an  improper  triphthong? 

What  chiefly  directs  us  in  dividing  words  into  syllables  ? 

How  many  rules  of  syllabication  are  given  ?  and  what  are  their  heads  f 

What  says  Rule  1st  a^ conmnants ? — Rule  2d  o^ vowels? — Rule  3d  oi termina- 
tions?— Rule  4th  of  prefixes? — Rule  5th  of  compounds? — Rule  6th  of  Unet 
full  ? 

LESSON  Vn. — W0ED3. 

What  is  a  word  ? 

How  are  words  distinguished  iu  regard  to  species  and  figure  ? 

What  is  a  primitive  word  ? 

What  is  a  derivative  word  ? 

What  is  a  simple  word  ? 

What  is  a  compound  w'ord  ? 

How  do  permanent  compounds  differ  from  others? 

How  many  are  the  rules  for  the  figure  of  words?  and  what,  their  heads  ? 

What  says  Rule  1st  of  compounds? — Rule  2d  of  simples  ?--ii.n\e  8d  of  tha 

sense? — Rule  ith  of  ellipses? — Rule  5th  of  the  hyphen? — Rule  6th  of  using 

no  hyphen  ? 

LESSON   Vm. — SPELLtNO. 

What  is  spelling  ? 

How  is  this  art  to  be  acquired  ? 

How  many  rules  for  spelling  are  there?  and  what  are  their  heads? 

What  says  Rule  1st  o\  final  f,  I,  or  s? — Rule  2d  of  other  finals? — Rule  3d  of 

the  dcubling  of  consonants? — Rule  4th  against  the  dovbling  of  consonants? 

— Rule  5th  of  retaining? — Rule   6th  oi  finale? — Rule  7th  oi  final  «? — 

Rule  8th  oi final  y .?— Rule  9th  of  compounds  t 


CHAPTER  YI.— FOR  WRITING. 

EXERCISES  m  ORTHOGRAPEY. 

'  [Spelling  l3  to  be  taught  by  example,  rather  than  by  rnle.  For  oral  exercise* 
in  this  branch  of  learning,  a  spelling-book  or  vocabulary  should  be  employed.  The 
following  examples  of  false  orthograpiiy  are  inserted,  that  they  may  be  corrected  by 
the  pupil  in  writing.  They  are  selected  with  direct  reference  to  the  rules;  which 
are  at  first  indicated  by  figures.  For  it  Is  evident,  that  exercises  of  this  kind,  without 
express  rules  for  tlioir  correction,  would  rather  perplex  than  instruct  the  learner; 
and  that  his  ability  to  correct  them  without  reference  to  the  rules,  must  presupposa 
ftncb  knewleilge  as  would  render  thorn  useless. 


CHAP.  VI.]         ORTHOGRAPHY. —  EXERCISES.  S5 

EXERCISE  I.— CAPITALS. 

1.  The  pedant  quoted  Johnson's  dictionary  of  the  english 
language,  Gregory's  dictionary  of  arts  and  sciences,  Crabb's 
english  synonymcs.  Walker's  key  to  the  pronunciation  of  pro- 
per names,  Sheridan's  rhetorical  grammar,  and  the  diversions 
of  purley. 

2.  gratitude  is  a  delightful  emotion,  the  grateful  heart  at 
once  performs  its  duty  and  endears  itself  to  others. 

3.  What  madness  and  folly,  to  deny  the  great  first  cause ! 
Shall  mortal  man  presume  against  his  maker "?  shall  he  not 
fear  the  omnipotent  ?  shall  he  not  reverence  the  everlasting 
one? — 'The  fear  of  the  lord  is  the  beginning  of  wisdom.' 

4.  xerxes  the  great,  emperor  of  persia,  united  the  medes, 
Persians,  bactrians,  lydians,  assyrians,  hyrcanians,  and  many 
other  nations,  in  an  expedition  against  greece. 

5.  I  observed  that,  when  the  votaries  of  religion  were  led 
aside,  she  commonly  recalled  them  by  her  emissary  conscience, 
before  habit  had  time  to  enchain  them. 

6.  Hercules  is  said  to  have  killed  the  nemean  lion,  the  ery- 
manthian  boar,  the  lernean  serpen^,  and  the  stymphalian 
birds.  The  christian  religion  has  brought  all  mythologic  stories 
and  milesian  iixbles  into  disrepute. 

7.  i  live  as  i  did,  i  think  as  i  d'id,  i  love  you  as  i  did ;  but 
all  these  are  to  no  purpose;  the  world  will  not  live,  think,  or 
love  as  i  do. — o  wretched  prince !  o  cruel  reverse  of  fortune  ! 
o  father  Micipsa ! 

8.  are  these  thy  views  1  proceed,  illustrious  youth, 
and  virtue  guard  thee  to  the  throne  of  truth  ! 

9.  Those  who  pretend  to  love  peace,  should  remember  this 
maxim  :  "  it  is  the  second  blow  that  makes  the  battle." 

EXERCISE  II.— CAPITALS. 

'time  and  i  will  challenge  any  other  two,'  said  philip. — 
'  thus,'  said  diogenes,  '  do  i  trample  on  the  pride  of  plato.' — • 
'  true,'  replied  plato  ;  '  but  is  it  not  with  the  greater  pride  of 
diogenes  V 

the  father  in  a  transport  of  joy,  burst  into  the  following 
^ords  :  ' o  excellent  scipio  !  heaven  has  given  thee  more  than 
human  virtue  !  o  glorious  leader  !  o  wondrfius  youth  !' 

epaminondas,  the  theban  general,  was  remarkable  for  his 
love  of  truth,     he  never  told  a  lie,  even  in  jest. 

and  pharaoh  said  to  Joseph,  "  say  to  thy  brethren,  *  do  this— 
lade  your  beasts,  and  go  to  the  land  of  canaan,' " 


86  INSTITUTES  OF  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR.        [PART  T. 

who  is  she  that,  with  graceful  steps  and  a  lively  air,  trips 
over  yonder  plain  ?  her  name  is  health  :  she  is  the  daughter  of 
exercise  and  temperance. 

to  the  penitent  sinner,  a  mediator  and  intercessor  with  the 
sovereign  of  the  universe,  appear  comfortable  names. 

the  murder  of  abel,  the  curse  and  rejection  of  eain,  and  the 
birth  and  adoption  of  seth,  are  almost  the  only  events  related 
of  the  immediate  family  of  adam,  after  his  fall. 

on  what  foundation  stands  the  warrior's  pride, 
how  just  his  hopes,  let  Swedish  charles  decide. 

in  every  leaf  that  trembles  to  the  breeze, 
i  hear  the  voice  of  god  among  the  trees. 

EXERCISE  III.— SYLLABLES. 

1.  Correct  Murray's  division  of  the  following  words :  "  d- 
Til,  co-lour,  co-py,  da-mask,  do-zen,  e-ver,  fea^ther,  ga-ther, 
hea-ven,  le-mon,  mea-dow,  ne-ver,  o-range,  pu-nish,  ro-bin, 
sho-vel,  ti-mid,  whi-ther; — be-ne-fit,  ca-n^p-ter,  ge-ne-rous, 
le-ve-ret,  li-be-ral,  se-ve-ral ; — mi-se-ra-ble,  to-le-ra^-ble,  e-pi-de- 
mic,  pa-ra-ly-tic ; — a-ca-de-mi-cal,  cha-rac-te-ris-tic,  ex-pe-ri- 
tnent-al." — Murray's  Spelling-Book. 

2.  Correct  Webster's  division  of  the  following  words : 
"  oy-er,  fol-io,  gen-ial,  gen-ius,  jun-ior,  sa-tiate,  vi-tiate  ; — am- 
bro-sia,  par-hel-ion,  con-ven-ient,  in-gen-ious,  om-nis-cience, 
pe-cul-iar,  so-cia-ble,  par-tial-i-ty,  pe-cun-ia-ry  ; — an-nun-ciate, 
e-nun-ciate,  ap-pre-ciate,  as-so-ciate,  ex-pa-tiate,  ne-go-tiate, 
sub-stan-tiate." —  Webster''s  Spelling-Boohs. 

3.  Correct  Cobb's  division  of  the  following  words  :  "  dres- 
ser, has-ty,  pas-try,  sei-zure,  rol-Ier,  jes-ter,  wea-ver,  vamper, 
han-dy,  dros-sy,  glos-cy,  mo-ver,  mo-ving,  oo-zy,  ful-ler,  trus-ty, 
weigh-ty,  noi-sy,  drow-sy,  swar-thy," — Cobb's  Standard  Spell- 
ing-Book. And  these  :  "  eas-tern,  full-y,  pull-et,  rill-et,  scan-ty, 
nee-dy." —  Webster.  Also  these  :  "  woo-dy,  stor-my,  clou-dy, 
ex-al-ted,  at-ten-dance. " — Murray. 

4.  Divide  the  following  words  into  their  proper  syllables  : 
adit,  ado,  adorn,  adown,  adrift,  anoint,  athwart,  awry,  bespeak, 
bestow,  between,  bifold,  encroach,  incrust,  foreknow,  forestall, 
forswear,  mishear,  mistell,  misyoke,  outrap,  overtire,  preterit, 
retrace,  unoiled,  unrepaid,  unresting,  underbid,  underanged, 
uphand,  upholder,  uprouse,  withal. 

5.  Divide  the  following  compounds  into  syllables :  England, 
anthill,  cowslip,  farewell,  foresail,  forctop,  hogshead,  homeward, 
sandstone,  forever,  husbandman,  painstaker. 


CHAP.  VI.]         ORTHOGRAPHY. —  EXERCISES.  37 

EXERCISE  IV.— FIGURE  OF  WORDS. 

1 .  The  shine  of  the  plough  share  is  the  farmer's  wealth. 

The  cross  row  has  ever  had  some  thing  of  a  magic  spell  in  it. 
The  old  fashioned  are  apt  to  think  the  world  grows  worse. 
The  stealing  of  water  melons  may  lead  to  house  breaking. 
A  good  clothes  brush  helps  greatly  to  make  a  gentle  man. 

2.  An  ill-tongue  is  a  fearful  corrupter  of  good-manners. 
Envy  not  the  good-luck  of  prosperous  transgressors. 

St.  Paul  admonishes  Timothy  to  refuse  old-wives'-fables. 
Lawmakers  have  often  been  partial  to  male-descendants. 
New-year's-gifts  brighten  many  a  face  on  new-year's  day. 

3.  They  that  live  in  glass-houses,  should  not  throw  stones. 
A  glass  house  is  a  house  in  which  glass  is  manufactured. 
A  spirit  stirring  discourse  is  seldom  a  long  winded  one. 
Knowledge  and  virtue  are  the  stepping  stones  to  honour. 
The  American  whip  poor  Will  is  a  night  warbling  bird. 

4.  Let  school  and  meeting-houses  be  pleasantly  located. 
The  teapot  and  kettle  are  now  deemed  indispensable. 
Both  the  ten  and  the  eight  syllable  verses  are  iambics. 
Most,  at  six  or  seventeen  years  of  age,  are  men  and  women. 
A  ketch  is  a  vessel  with  two  masts,  a  main  and  mizzen-mast. 

5.  The  bloodyminded  man  seldom  dwells  long  in  safety. 
A  tiresmith  puts  on  wheelbands  redhot,  then  cools  them. 
Plato  was  so  called  because  he  was  broadshouldered. 
Timehonoured  custom  may  be  souldestroying  folly. 

Is  evenhanded  honesty  expected  in  slavemerehants  1 

6.  A  good  pay-master  is  always  a  man  of  some  fore-thought. 
The  glory  of  the  common-wealth  is  the  states-man's  boast. 
Rain-bows  are  made  of  sun-shine  dissolved  in  sky-water. 

EXERCISE  v.— SPELLING. 

1.  Few  know  the  value  of  a  friend,  til  they  lose  him. 
Good  men  pas  by  offences,  and  take  no  revenge. 
Hear  patiently,  iff  thou  wouldst  speak  wel. 

2.  The  business  of  warr  is  devastation  and  destructioo- 
To  er  is  human ;  to  forgive,  divine. 

A  bad  speller  should  not  pretend  to  scholarshipp, 

3.  It  often  requires  deep  diging,  to  obtain  pure  water. 
Praise  is  most  shuned  by  the  praiseworthy. 

He  that  hoists  too  much  sail,  runs  a  risk  of  overseting. 

4.  Quarrels  are  more  easily  begun  than  endded. 
Contempt  leaves  a  deepper  scar  than  anger. 

Of  all  tame  animak  the  flatterrer  is  the  most  mischievous. 

4 


38  INSTITUTES   OF   ENGLISn   GFwAMMAR.        [PAET  L 


5.  Sraalness  with  talncss  makes  the  figure  too  slender, 
rieedlesncss  is  always  in  danger  ofenibarrasment. 
The  recklesness  of  license  is  no  attribute  of  fredom, 

6.  Good  examples  are  very  convinceing  teachers. 
Doubts  should  not  excite  contention,  but  inquircy.     . 
Obligeing  conduct  procures  deserved  esteem. 

7.  Wise  men  measure  time  by  their  improvment  of  it. 
Learn  to  estimate  all  things  by  their  real  usfulness. 
Encouragment  increases  with  success 

8.  Nothing  essential  to  happyness  is  unattainable. 
Vices,  though  near  relations,  arc  all  at  varyance. 
Before  thou  denyest  a  favour,  consider  the  request. 

9.  Good-wil  is  a  more  powerful  motive  than  constraint. 
A  wel-spent  day  prepares  us  for  sweet  repose. 

The  path  of  fame  is  altogether  an  uphil  road. 

EXERCISE  VI.— SPELLING. 

1 .  lie  js  tal  enough  who  walks  uprightly. 
Repetition  makes  smal  transgressions  great. 
Religion  regulates  the  wil  and  aflections. 

2.  To  carry  a  ful  cupp  even,  requires  a  steady  hand. 
Idleness  is  the  nest  in  which  mischief  lays  its  egs. 
The  whole  journey  of  life  is  besett  with  foes. 

3.  Peace  of  mind  should  be  prefered  to  bodily  safety. 
A  bad  begining  is  unfxvourable  to  suc'jess. 

Very  fruitful  trees  often  need  to  be  proped. 

4.  None  ever  gained  esteem  by  tattling  and  gossipping. 
Religion  purifies,  fortifies,  and  tranquillizes  the  mind. 
They  had  all  been  closctted  together  a  long  time. 

5.  Blesed  is  he  whose  transgresion  is  forgiven. 
Indolence  and  listlesncss  are  foes  to  happiness. 
Carelesness  has  occasioned  many  a  wearisome  step. 

C.  In  all  thy  undertakcings,  ponder  the  motive  and  the  end. 
We  cannot  wrong  others  without  injureing  ourselves. 
A  dureable  good  cannot  spring  from  an  external  cause. 

7.  Duely  appreciate  and  improve  your  privileges. 
To  borrow  of  future  time,  is  thriftless  managment. 

He  who  is  truely  a  freman  is  above  mean  compliances. 

8.  Pitiiug  friends  cannot  save  us  in  a  diing  hour. 
Wisdom  rescues  the  decaies  of  age  from  aversion. 
Vallies  are  generally  more  fertile  than  hills. 

9.  Cold  nuraness  had  quite  bereft  her  of  sense. 

A  cascade,  or  waterfal,  is  a  charming  object  in  scenerj. 


CHAP.  VI.]  ORTnOGr.APHT. —  EXERCISES.  S9 

Nettles  grovr  in  the  vinyard  of  the  slolhfull. 
Tuition  is  lost  on  idlers  and  numbsculs. 

EXERCISE  VII.— SPELLING. 

1.  He  that  scofs  at  the  crooked,  should  beware  of  stooping. 
Pictures  that  resemble  flowers,  smel  only  of  paint. 
Misdemeanours  arc  the  pioneers  of  gros  vices. 

2.  To  remitt  a  Avrong,  leaves  the  offender  in  debt. 
Superlative  commendation  is  near  akinn  to  detraction. 
Piety  admitts  not  of  excessive  sorrow. 

S.  You  arc  safe  in  forgeting  benefits  you  have  confered. 
lie  has  run  well  who  has  outstriped  his  own  errors. 
See  that  you  have  ballast  proportionate  to  your  riging. 

4.  The  biasses  of  prejudice  often  preclude  convincement. 
Rather  follow  the  wise  than  lead  the  foollish. 

To  reason  with  the  angry,  is  like  whisperring  to  the  deaf. 
A  bigotted  judge  needs  no  time  for  deliberation. 
The  gods  of  this  world  have  many  worshippers. 

5.  Crosness  has  more  subjects  than  admirers. 
Eearlesness  conquers  where  Blamelesness  is  armour-bearer. 
G.  Many  things  arc  chiefly  valued  for  their  rareity. 
Vicious  old  age  is  hopeless  and  deploreable. 

Irreconcil cable  animosity  is  always  blameablc. 

7.  Treachery  lurks  beneath  a  guilful  tongue. 
Disobedience  and  mischief  deserve  chastisment. 

By  self-examination,  wc  discover  the  lodgments  of  sin. 
The  passions  often  mislead  the  judgment. 

8.  To  be  happy  without  holyness  is  impossible. 
And,  all  within,  were  walks  and  allies  wide. 
Call  imperfection  what  thou  fancy'st  such. 
Without  fire  chimnies  arc  useless. 

0.  The  true  philanthropist  deserves  a  universal  pasport. 
Ridicule  is  generally  but  the  froth  of  il-nature. 
All  mispeut  time  will  one  day  be  regretted. 

EXERCISE  VIII.— SPELLING. 

Fiction  may  soften,  without  improveing  the  heart. 
Affectation  is  a  sprout  that  should  be  niped  in  the  bud, 
A  covettous  person  is  always  in  want. 
Fashion  is  compareable  to  an  ignis  fatuus. 
Fair  appearances  somtimes  cover  foul  purposes. 
Garnish  not  your  commendations  with  flatterry. 
Never  utter  a  fklshood  even  for  truth's  sake. 


40  INSTITUTES   OF  ENGLISH:   GRAMMAR.        [PART  L 

Medicines  should  be  administerred  with  caution. 
We  have  here  no  continueing  city,  no  abideing  rest. 
Many  a  trapp  is  laid  to  ensnare  the  feet  of  youth. 
We  are  caught  as  sillyly  as  the  bird  in  the  net. 
By  defering  repentance,  we  accumulate  sorrows. 
To  preach  to  the  droneish,  is  to  waste  your  words. 
We  are  often  benefitted  by  what  we  have  dreaded. 
We  may  be  succesful,  and  yet  disappointed. 
In  rebusses,  pictures  are  used  to  represent  words. 
He  is  in  great  danger  Avho  parlies  with  conscience. 
Your  men  of  forhead  are  magnificent  in  promises. 
A  true  friend  is  a  most  valueable  acquisition. 
It  is  not  a  bad  memory  that  forgets  injuryes. 
Weigh  your  subject  wel,  before  you  speak  positivly. 
Difficulties  are  often  increased  by  mismanagment. 
Diseases  are  more  easyly  prevented  than  cured. 
Contrivers  of  mischief  often  entrapp  themselves. 
Corrupt  speech  indicates  a  distemperred  mind. 
Asseveration  does  not  allways  remove  doubt. 
Hypocrites  are  like  wolves  in  sheeps'  clotheing. 
Ostentatious  liberallity  is  its  own  paymaster. 

EXERCISE  IX.— SPELLING. 

A  downhil  road  may  be  travelled  with  ease. 
Distempered  fancy  can  swel  a  molehil  to  a  mountain. 
Let  your  own  unbiassed  judgment  determine. 
A  knave  can  often  undersel  his  honest  neighbours. 
Xenophanes  prefered  reputation  to  wealth. 
True  politeness  is  the  ofspring  of  benevolence. 
Levellers  are  generally  the  dupes  of  designning  men. 
Rewards  are  for  those  who  have  fullfiled  their  duty. 
Who  trusts  a  hungry  boy  in  a  cubburd  of  dainties  ? 
Misery  acquaints  a  man  with  strange  bedfellers. 
The  liberal  man  ties  his  purse  with  a  beau-not. 
Double-deelers  are  seldom  long  in  favour. 
The  characters  of  the  crosrow  have  wrought  wonders. 
The  plagiary  is  a  jacdaw  decked  with  stolen  plumes. 
All  virtues  are  in  agrement ;  all  vices,  at  varyance. 
Personnal  liberty  is  every  man's  natural  birthrite. 
There,  wrapt  in  clouds,  the  blueish  hills  ascend. 
The  birds  frame  to  thy  song,  their  chearfuU  cherupping 
There  figgs,  sky  dyed,  a  purple  hue  disclose. 
Lysander  goes  twice  a  day  to  the  choccolat-house. 
Years  following  years,  steal  sumthing  every  day. 


CHAP.  VI.]  ORTHOGRAPHY. —  EXERCISES-  4:1 

The  soul  of  the  slothfull,  doos  but  drowse  in  his  body. 

What  think  you  of  a  clergiman  in  a  soldier's  dres? 

Justice  is  hero  holding  the  stilliards  for  a  balance. 

The  huniiiig-bird  is  somtimes  no  biger  than  a  bumble-be. 

The  niuskittoes  will  make  you  as  spoted  as  a  samon-trout. 

Cruelty  to  animals  is  a  malicious  and  lo-ilved  vice. 

Absolute  Necessity  must  sign  their  deth-warrant. 

He  who  catches  flies,  emulates  the  nat-snaper. 

The  froggs  had  long  lived  unmolested  in  a  horspond. 

'  These  are  villanous  creatures,'  says  a  blokheded  boy. 

The  robbin-read-breast  til  of  late  had  rest ; 

And  children  sacred  held  a  martin's  nest 

4* 


i2  INSTITUTES   OF  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR.      [PARTU. 


PART    II. 

ETYMOLO  GY. 

Etjmolog}^  treats  of  the  different  parts  of  speech,  ■with 
their  classes  and  modifications. 


CHAPTER  I— THE  PARTS  OF  SPEECH. 

The  Parts  of  Speech,  or  sorts  of  words,  in  English,  are 
ten;  namely,  the  Article,  the  Noun,  the  Adjective,  the 
Pronoun,  the  Verb,  the  Participle,  the  Adverb,  the  Con- 
junction, the  Preposition,  and  the  Interjection. 

1.  The  Article. 

An  Article  is  the  word  the,  an,  or  a,  which  we  put 
before  nouns  to  limit  their  signification ;  as,  The  air,  the 
stars  ;  an  island,  a  ship. 

2.  The  Noun. 

A  Noun  is  the  name  of  any  person,  place,  or  thing, 
that  can  be  known  or  mentioned :  as,  George,  York,  man, 
apple,  truth. 

3.  The  Adjective. 

An  Adjective  is  a  word  added  to  a  noun  or  pronoun, 
and  generally  expresses  quality  ;  as,  A  wise  man ;  a  new 
book.     You  two  are  diligent. 

4.  The  Pronoun. 

A  Pronoun  is  a  word  used  in  stead  of  a  noun :  as, 
The  boy  loves  his  book;  he  has  long  lessons,  and  he 
learns  them, well. 

5.  The  Verb. 

A  Verb  is  a  word  that  signifies  to  he,  to  act,  or  to  be 
acted  upon:  as,  I  am,  I  rule,  I  am  ruled;  I  hue,  thou 
lovest,  he  loves. 


chap.  i.j  etymology. —  parsing.  43 

6.  The  Participle. 

A  Participle  is  a  word  derived  from  a  verb,  partici- 
pating llie  properties  of  a  verb,  and  of  an  adjective  or  a 
noun ;  and  is  generally  formed  by  adding  ivg^  d,  or  ed, 
to  the  verb :  thus,  from  the  verb  rule,  are  formed  three 
participles,  twc  simple  and  one  compound;  as,  1.  ruling, 
2.  rukd,  3.  having  ruled. 

7.  The  Adverb. 

An  Adverb  is  a  word  added  to  a  verb,  a  participle,  an 
adjective,  or  an  other  adverb ;  and  generally  expresses 
time,  place,  degree,  or  manner :  as,  They  are  now  here, 
studying  very  diligently. 

8.  The  Conjunction. 

A  Conjunction  is  a  word  used  to  connect  words  or 
sentences  in  construction,  and  to  show  the  dependence 
of  the  terms  so  connected  :  as,  "  Thou  and  he  are  happy, 
because  you  are  good." — L.  Murray. 

9.  The  Preposition. 

A  Preposition  is  a  word  used  to  express  some  rela- 
tion of  different  things  or  thoughts  to  each  other,  and  is 
generally  placed  before  a  noun  or  a  pronoun :  a=,  The 
paper  lies  before  me  on  the  desk. 

10.  The  Interjection. 

An  Interjection  is  a  Avord  that  is  uttered  merely  to 
Indicate  some  strong  or  sudden  emotion  of  the  mind:  as, 

Oh  1  alas  !  ah  !  pah  !  pshaw  !  avaunt  I 


PARSING. 

Parsing  is  the  resolving  or  explaining  of  a  sentence, 
<or  of  some  related  word  or  words,  according  to  the  defi- 
nitions and  rules  of  grammar. 

A  sentence  is  an  assemblage  of  words,  making  com- 
plete sense ;  as,  "  Eeward  sweetens  labor. — "  The  fear  of 
the  Lord  is  the  beginning  of  wisdom." 


4i  INSTITUTES   OF  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR.      [PART  II. 

A  definition  of  any  thing  or  class  of  things  is  such  a  descrip- 
tion of  it,  as  distinguishes  that  entire  thing  or  class  from  every 
thing  else,  by  brietiy  telling  ivhat  't  is. 

A  rule  of  grammar  is  some  law,  more  or  less  general,  by 
which  custom  regulates  and  prescribes  the  right  use  of  lan- 
guage. I 

A  praxis  is  a  method  of  exercise,  showing  the  learner  how 
to  proceed.  (The  word  literally  signifies  action,  doing,  practice, 
or  formal  use.) 

An  example  is  a  particular  instance  or  model,  serving  to  prove 
or  illustrate  some  given  proposition  or  truth. 

An  exercise  is  some  technical  performance  required  of  the 
learner  in  order  to  test  his  knowledge  or  skill  by  use. 


EXERCISES  IN  PARSING. 

PRAXIS   I. — ETYMOLOGICAL. 

In  the  First  Praxis^  it  is  required  of  the  2)upil — to  distinguish 
the  different  parts  of  speech,  and  to  assigri  a  reason  for  such 
distinction,  hy  citing  the  proper  definition^  and  adapting  it  to 
each  particular  case.     Thus  : — 

EXAMPLE    PARSED. 

"  The  patient  ox  submits  to  the  yoke,  and  meekly  performs 
the  labor  required  of  him." 

1.* Submits  is  a  verb,  because  it  signifies  action; 

Ferforms  is  also  a  verbj  for  the  same  reason. 
2.  Ox  is  a  noun,  because  it  is  the  name  of  a  thing ; 

Yoke  and  labor  are  nouns,  for  the  same  reason. 
S.  The  is  an  article,  because  it  limits  the  signification  of  ox,  yoke,  or 
labor — the  noun  before  which  it  is  placed. 

4.  Fiitient  is  an  adjective,  because  it  expresses  the  quality  of  oa;. 

5.  Him  is  a  pronoun,  because  it  is  used  instead  of  the  noun  ox. 

6.  Required,  is  a  participle,  because  it  expresses  action  like  a  verb, 

and  qualifies  the  noun  labor  liko  an  adjective. 

*  J^"  The  numbers  are  here  usod  to  indicate  the  order  in  whi''>  the  pupil  should, 
at  first,  be  required  to  distinsuish  the  parts  of  speech  in  any  senunce.  The  verb  i* 
made  the  first  in  this  series,  because  it  is  the  word  to  which  all  others  ve  an  imme- 
diate or  remote  relation,  and  because  t  is  easily  recognized,  and,  when  discovered, 
leads  the  mind  necessarily  to  a  knowledge  of  the  other  parts  of  speech  comprehended 
in  the  sentence,  by  showing  the  i)articular  office  of  every  word.  This  cannot  be  done, 
at  this  stage  of  the  pupil's  progress,  with  a  proper  degree  of  intelligence  and  pre- 
cision, by  mechanically  examining  each  word  in  succession;  for  the  reason  that  to 
do  so  requires  him  to  compare  the  distinctive  office  of  each  pan  of  speech  with  the 
word  examined  ;  wh'  >  !  i  these  preliminary  exercises,  he  i^only  required  to  keep  ia 
mind  the  characli'r  of  a  single  part  of  speech,  and  compare  it-witb  each  tcovd  of  the 
sentence  in  succession.  Besides,  an  eclectic  process  liko  that  indicated,  is  better 
calculated  to  keep  f'je  interest  and  attention  of  tlie  pupil  awake,  the  constant  desira 
9t  discovery  continually  stimulating  mental  atLivity. 


CHAP.  I.]      ETYMOLOGY. — PARSING. — PRAXIS  I.  45 

7.  Meekly  is  tm  adverb,  because  it  is  added  to  the  verb  perforins. 

and  expresses  maimer. 
6.  And  is  a  conjiuiction,  because  it  connects  submits  and  performs. 

8.  2'o  is  a  preposition,  because  it  expresses  the  relation  of  tJie  verb 

submits  to  the  noun  yoke. 

EXERCISE    I. 

parse,  in  the  folloiving  sentences,  the  verb,  the  noun,  and  the 
article,  in  the  order,  and  according  to  the  method,  indicated 
in  Praxis  I. 

The  tree  bears  fmit,  Pizarro  invaded  Peru.  Avarice  causes 
crime.  The  raiser  loves  gold.  The  ox  bears  a  yoke.  The 
river  overflowed  the  banks.  John's  brother  has  entered  college. 
The  carpenter  is  using  a  saw.  John  Smith  explored  Virginia. 
Columbus  was  a  Genoese.  Napoleon  Bonaparte  died  an  exile. 
Lend  Charles  a  book.  The  merchant  has  made  a  fortune. 
Did  the  candidate  obtain  tlie  office?  The  elephant  is  a  quad- 
ruped. Virgil  praised  the  emperor  Augustus,  The  boys  have 
told  an  untruth.  The  scholar's  diligence  deserves  a  reward. 
Could  the  criminal  have  escaped  punishment  ?  Queen  Dido 
founded  Carthage.     Scipio  defeated  Hannibal. 

EXERCISE    II. 

Parse,  in  the  following  sentences,  the  verb,  the  noun,  the  article, 

the  adjective,  the  pronoun,  and  the  adverb,  iri  the  oi'der^  and 

according  to  the  method,  indicated  in  Praxis  I. 

The  industrious  boys  have  recited  their  lessons  well. 

The  architect  who  planned  that  fine  building,  is  naujed  Brown, 

Demosthenes  was  a  very  famous  Grecian  orator. 

A  child  who  disobeys  his  parents,  is  very  ungrateful. 

Human  happiness  is  exceedingly  transient. 

The  man  who  has  not  virtue,  is  not  truly  wise. 

I  saw  the  whole  transaction ;  both  parties  disgraced  them« 
eelves.     They  had  a  fierce  dispute. 

Perseverance  finally  overcomes  all  obstacles. 

I,  who  was  present,  know  all  the  particulars. 

A  Being  infinitely  wise  will  not  unnecessarily  afflict  bia 
creatures. 

Passionate  men  are  very  easily  irritated. 

Good  books  always  deserve  a  careful  perusal. 

Evil  communications  corrupt  good  manners. 

EXERCISE    III. 

Parse  all  the  parts  of  sjoeech  to  be  found  in  the  following  sen* 
tences,  according  to  Praxis  I. 


46 


INSTITL'TES   OF  ENGLISH   GRAMMAE.      [PART  II 


The  rose,  the  lily,  and  the  pink,  are  fragrant  flowers. 
A  landscape  presents  a  pleasing  variety  of  objects. 
The  eagle  has  a  strong  and  piercing  eye. 
The  swallow  builds  her  nest  of  mud,  and  lines  it  with  sofit 
feathers. 

The  setting  sun  gives  a  beautiful  brilliancy  to  the  western  sky. 

Virtuous  youth  gradually  brings  forward  accomplished  and 
flourishing  manhood. 

Sloth  enfeebles  equally  the  bodily  and  the  mental  powers. 
It  saps  the  foundation  of  every  virtue,  and  pours  upon  us  a 
deluge  of  crimes  and  evils. 

O  Virtue  !  how  miserable  are  they  who  forfeit  thy  rewards! 

Alas!  such  miseries  are  too  common  among  mankind! 

Industry  is  needful  in  every  condition  of  life  ;  the  price  of 
fill  improvement  is  labor. 

When  spring  returns,  the  trees  resume  their  verdure,  and 
the  plants  and  flowers  display  their  beauty. 


CHAPTER  II.— OF  ARTICLES. 

An  Article  is  the  word  the,  an,  or  a,  wbicli  we  put 
"before  nouns  to  limit  their  signification :  as,  The  air,  the 
stars;  an  island,  a  ship. 

An  and  a  arc  one  and  the  same  article.  An  is  used  Avhen- 
ever  tlo  following  word  begins  with  a  vowel  sound;  as,  An 
art,  an  end,  an  heir,  an  inch,  an  ounce,  an  hour,  an  urn. — A  is 
used  whenever  the  following  word  begins  with  a  consonant 
sound;  as,  A  man,  a  house,  a  wonder,  a  one,  a  yew,  a  use,  a 
ewer.  Thus  the  consonant  sounds  of  w  and  y,  even  when  ex- 
pressed by  other  letters,  require  a  and  not  an  before  them. 

CLASSES. 

The  articles  are  distinguished  as  the  definite  and  the 
indefinite. 

I.  The  definite  article  is  the,  which  denotes  some  par-* 
ticular  thing  or  things  ;  as,  The  boy,  the  oranges. 

II.  The  indefinite  article  is  an  or  a,  Avhich  denotes  one 
thing  of  a  kind,  but  not  any  particular  one  ;  as,  A  boy, 
an  orange. 

Obs.  1.— The  English  articles  have  no  gmnimafical  modifications ;  they  are 


CHAP.  III.]  ETYMOLOGY.— NOUNS.— CLASSES.  47 

rot  varied  by  numbers,  pendcrs,  and  cases,  as  are  those  of  eomo  other  lan- 
guages,   lu  respect  to  class,  each  is  sui  generis. 

Obs.  2. — A  common  noun  -without  an  article  or  other  word  to  limit  its  sie- 
nification,  is  generally  taken  in  its  widest  sense  ;  as,  "  A  candid  temper  la 
proper  for  man;  that  ia, /or  ail  mankind." — Murray. 


CHAPTER  III.— OF  NOUNS. 

A  Noun  is  the  name  of  any  person,  place,  or  thing, 
that  can  be  known  or  mentioned  :  as,  Oeorge^  York,  man, 
apple,  truth. 

Obs.  ]. — All  words  and  signs  taken  technically,  (that  is,  independently  of 
their  meaning,  and  merely  as  things  spoken  of,)  are  nouns ;  or,  nitlier,  ara 
things  read  and  construed  as  nouns  •  as.  Us  is  u  personal  pronoun." — Mur- 
ray. "  Th  has  two  sounds." — Id.  "  Control  is  probably  contracted  from 
counterroU.'''' — Cralh.  "Without  one  if  or  hut,'''' — Cowper.  '■'■A  is  some- 
times a  noun  ;  as,  a  great  A."— Todd's  Johnson.  "Formerly  sp  was  cast  in 
a  piece,  as  st's  are  now." — Hist,  of  Printing,  1770. 

Obs.  2. — In  parsing,  the  learner  must  observe  the  sense  and  use  of  each 
■word,  and  class  it  accordingly:  many  words  commonly  belonging  to  other 


nines." — Burns.  2.  "  Or  any  7ic,  the  proudest  of  thy  sort." — ShaL  "  I  am 
the  happiest  she  in  KenV— Steele.  "  The  shes  of  Italy."— .S'^a/fc.  "  The  hes 
in  birds.'''— Bacon.  3.  "  Avauirt  .all  .attitude,  and  stare,  and  start,  theatric  !" 
—Oneper.  "A  ma«/-6e  of  mercy  is  insufficient."— iJWt/^p.  4.  "  For  the^oro 
ducing  of  real  happiness." — Crahh.  "  Reading,  loriting,  and  ciphering,  aro 
indispensable  tocivilized  man."  5.  '■'  An  hereafter."— Addison.  "The dread 
of  a  hereafter."— FalUr.  "  The  deep  amen." —Scott.  "  The  tvhile  ."—Milton. 
6.  "  With  harh,  and  tvhoop,  and  wild  halloo."— Scott.  "  Will  cuts  him  sliort 
•with  a  '  iVhat  then  f  "—Addison. 

CLASSES. 

Nouns  are  divided  into  two  general  classes ;  proper 
and  commo7i. 

_  I.  A  propter  noun  is  the  name  of  some  particular  indi- 
vidual, or,  people,  or  group  ;  as,  Adcun,  Boston,  the  Bud- 
son,  the  Romans,  the  Azores,  the  Alp)S. 

II.  A  common  noun  is  the  name  of  a  sort,  kind,  or 
class,  of  beings  or  things ;  as,  Beast,  bird,  fish,  insect,— 
creatures,  persons,  children. 

The  particular  classes,  collective,  abstract,  and  verbal  or  par- 
ticipial,  are  usually  inchided  among  common  nouns.  The 
name  of  a  thing  sui  generis  is  also  called  common. 

1.  A  collective  noun,  or  noun  of  multitude,  is  the  name  of 
many  individuals  together  j  as,  Council,  meeting,  commiltee, 
/lock. 


4:3  INSTITUTES   OF  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR.      [PART  II. 

2.  An  ahsfract  noun  is  the  name  of  some  particular  quality 
considered  apart  from  its  substance ;  as,  Goodness,  hardness^ 
pride,  frailty. 

3.  A  verbal  ov  participial  noun  is  the  name  of  some  action 
or  state  of  being  ;  and  is  fo*  ^  from  a  verb,  like  a  participle, 
but  employed  as  a  noun ;  Ua,  •  The  triumphing  of  the  wicked 
is  short." — Job,  xx,  5. 

4.  A  thing  sui  generis,  (i.  e.,  of  its  own  peculiar  hind,)  is 
something  which  is  distinguished,  not  as  an  individual  of  a 
species,  but  as  a  sort  by  itself,  without  plurality  in  either  the 
noun  or  the  sort  of  thing  ;  as,  Galvanism,  music,  geometry. 

Obs-  1.— The  proper  name  of  a  person  or  place  with  an  article  prefixed,  is 
generally  used  as  a  common  noun  ;  as,  "  He  is  the  Oicero  of  his  age," — that 
is,  the  orator.  "  Many  a  fiery  Alp,'''' — that  is,  mountain :  except  when  a  com- 
mon noun  is  understood;  as,  I'he  [river]  Hudson, —  The  [ship]  Amity, — The 
treacherous  [man]  Judas. 

Obs.  2. — A  common  noun  with  the  definite  article  prefixed  to  it,  some- 
times becomes  proper;  as,  The  Park, — The  Strand. 

Obs.  3. — The  common  name  of  a  tiling  or  quality  personified  often  becomes 
proper;  as,  '"My  power,'  said  Reason,  'is  to  advise,  uot  to  compel.'" — 
Johnson. 

MODIFICATIONS. 

Nouns  have  modifications  of  four  kinds;   namely, 

Persons^  Numbers,  Genders,  and  Cases. 

PERSONS. 

Persons,  in  grammar,  are  modifications  that  distin- 
guish the  speaker,  the  hearer,  and  the  person  or  thing 
merely  spoken  of. 

Oes. — The  distinction  of  persons  is  founded  on  the  different  relations 
which  the  objects  mentioned  may  bear  to  the  discourse  itself.  It  belongs  to 
nouns,  pronouns,  and  finite  verbs  ;  and  to  these  it  }s  always  applied,  either 
by  peculiarity  of  form  or  construction,  or  by  inference  from  the  principles  of 
concord.  Pronouns  are  like  their  antecedents,  and  verbs  aie  like  their  sub- 
jects, in  person. 

There  are  three  persons;  i\xQ first,  the  second,  and  the 
tJiird. 

The  first  person  is  that  which  denotes  the  speaker  or 
writer  ;  as  "  I  Paul  have  written  it." 

The  second  person  is  that  which  denotes  the  hearer,  or 
the  person  addressed  ;  as,  "  Robert,  who  did  this '?" 

The  third  person  is  that  which  denotes  the  person  o? 
thing  merely  spoken  of;  as,  '"''  James  loves  his  hook^ 

Obs.  1. — In  written  language,  the^>«<^er«a« denotes  the  writer  or  author^ 
and  the  second,  the  reader  or  person  addressed  :  except  when  the  writer  de» 
Bcribes  not  himself,  but  some  one  else,  as  uttering  to  an  Other  the  worda 
which  he  records. 


CHAP.  IIIJ  ETYMOLOGY.— NOUNS.— NUMBEES.  49 

Ob9.  2. — Tho  speaker  Beldom  refers  to  himself  byname  as  the  Bpeaker; 
consequently,  nouns  are  rarely  used  in  the  tirst  person ;  and  wlien  they  are, 
a  pronoun  is  usually  prefixed  to  tliein.  Hence  some  grammarians  deny  the 
tirst  person  to  nouns  altogether ;  others  ascribe  it ;  and  many  are  silent  on 
the  subject.  Analogy  clearly  requires  it;  as  may  be  seen  by  the  following 
examples:  "^(/wmTroius^neas."— Fi^.  "Callopius/r-w/wui."— 7fer.  Com. 
apudrimm.     "  Paul,  an  apostle,  »te.,  "%nothy,  »i^  own  sou  in  the  faith." 

— 1  Tim.,  i.  1.  '•  .^ 

Obs.  3. — When  a  speaker  or  writer  does  not  choose  to  declare  himself  in 
the  jirst  person,  or  to  address  his  hearer  or  reader  in  the  second,  he  speaks 
of  both  or  either  in  the  third.  Thus  Moses  relates  what  M>ses  did,  and  Caesar 
records  the  achievements  of  Uccsur.  So  Judali  hunihly  beseeches  Joseph: 
"  Let  th?/  servant  abide  in  stead  of  the  L-id  a  bondman  to  my  lord.''^ — Gen., 
xliv,  83.  And  Abraham  reverently  intercedes  with  God :  "  Oh !  let  not  the 
Lord  be  angry,  and  I  will  speak." — Gen.,  xvili,  30. 

Ob3.  4.— When  inanimate  things  are  spoken  to,  they  are  pergordfied  ;  and 
their  names  are  put  in  the  second  person,  because  by  the  :^ure  tho  objects 
are  supposed  to  be  capable  of  hearing. 

NUMBERS. 

^Numbers,  in  grammar,  are  modifications  that  distin- 
guish unity  and  plurality. 

Obs. — The  distinction  of  numbers  serves  merely  to  show  whether  we  speak 
of  one  object,  or  of  more.  It  belongs  to  nouns,  pronouns,  and  finite  verbs  ; 
and  to  these  it  is  always  applied,  either  by  pecuJiarity  of  form,  or  by  infer- 
ence from  the  principles  ot  concord.  Pronouns  are  like  their  antecedents, 
and  verbs  are  like  their  subjects,  in  number. 

There  are  two  numbers ;  the  singular  and  the  2^^ural. 

The  singular  number  is  that  which  denotes  but  one ; 
as,  The  boy  learns. 

The  jjlural  number  is  that  which  denotes  more  than 
one  ;  as,  The  hoys  learn. 

The  plural  number  of  nouns  is  regularly  formed  by 
adding  s  or  es  to  the  singular  :   as,  book.,  hooks;  box.,  boxes. 

Rule  I. — When  the  singular  ends  in  a  sound  which  will 
unite  with  that  of  s,  the  plural  is  generally  formed  by  adding 
a  only,  and  the  number  of  syllables  is  not  hicreased  :  sl^,  pen, 
pens  ;  grape,  grapes. 

Rule  IL — But  when  the  sound  of  s  cannot  be  united  with 
that  of  the  primitive  word,  the  plural  adds  s  to  final  e,  and  es 
to  other  terminations,  and  forms  a  separate  syllable:  as,  j^age, 
pages  ;  fox,  foxes. 

Obs.  1. — English  nouns  ending  in  o  preceded  by  a  consonant,  add  eg,  but 
do  not  increase  their  syllables:  as,  wo,  woes;  hero,  heroes:  negro,  negroes; 
potato,  potatoes ;  muskitto,  musJcittoes ;  octavo,  octavoes.  The  exceptions  to 
this  rule  appear  to  be  in  such  nouns  as  are  not  properly  and  fully  Anglicized; 
tlius  many  write  cantos,  juntos,  solos,  &c.  Other  nouns  in  o  add  s  only ;  as, 
folio,  folios  ;  bamboo,  bamboos.  The  plural  of  two  is  commonly  written  twos, 
but  some  prefer  tivoes. 

Obs.  2. — Common  nouns  ending  in  y  preceded  by  a  consonant,  change  y 
into  i,  and  add  es,  without  increase  of  syllables  :  as,  jly,  ilies  ;  duty,  duties, 

3 


50  INSTITUTES  OF   ENGLISH   GRAMMAR.        PART  II. 

Other  nouns  in  y  add  s  only :  as,  day,  days;  valley,  valleys.     So  likewise 
proper  names  in  y  are  sometimes  varied ;  as,  Henry,  the  Henrys. 

Obs.  3.— The  following  nouns  in/,  change  /  mto  »,  and  add  es,  for  the 
plural;  sheaf,  leaf,  loaf,  beef,  thief,  calf,  Jialf,  elf,  shelf  self,  wolf,  u-harf :  as, 
sheaves,  leaves,  &c.  Life,  lives ;  knife,  knives ;  wtje,  wives ;  are  similar, 
i'te/"  makes  staves:  though  the  compounds  of  ste/f  are  regular;  as,flagst(^,  . 
flagstaffs.  The  greater  number  of  nouns  in  /  and  fc,  are  regular  ;  as,  fifes, 
iirife^s  chiefs,  griefs,  gulfs,  &c. 

Obs.  4. — The  following  are  still  more  irregular  :  man,  men  ;  tcoman,  wo- 
men ;  child,  children;  brother,  brethren  [or  brothers]  j  foot,  feet ;  ox,  oxen; 
tooth,  teeth;  goose,  geese;  louse,  lice;  m/mse,  mice;  die,  dice  ;  penny,  pence ; 
Dies,  stamps,  &\idi  pennies,  coins,  arc  regular. 

Obs.  5. — Many  foreign  nouns  retain  their  original  plural :  as,  arcanum, 
arcana;  datum,  data;  erratum,  errata;  effluvium,  ejfluvia;  medium,  media 
[or  inediums]  ;  minutia,  7ninuti(?. ;  stratum,  strata  ;  stamen,  stamina  ;  genus, 
genera  ;  genius,  genii  [geniuses,  for  men  of  wit] ;  magus,  magi  ;  radius,  radii ; 
appendix,  appendices  [or  appendixes']  ;  calx,  calces;  index,  indices  [or  indexes']; 
vortex,  vortices  ;  axis,  axes ;  basis,  bases  ;  crisis,  crises ;  thesis,  theses  ;  anti- 
thesis, antitheses;  diceresis,  dicereses;  ellipsis,  ellipses;  emphasis,  emphases; 
hypothesis,  hypotheses  ;  metamoiphosis,  meUimxtrphoses  ;  automaton,  automata  ; 
criterion,  criteria  [or  eriterions]  ;  ph(enom£non,  phmnom^na  ;  cherub,  cherubim ; 
seraph,  seraphim;  beau,  beo/ux  [or  beau s]. 

Obs.  6. — Some  nouns  (from  the  nature  of  the  things  meant)  have  no  plural ; 
as,  gold,  pride,  meekness. 

Obs.  7. — Proper  names  o?  individuals,  strictly  used  as  such,  have  no  plural. 
But  when  several  persons  of  the  same  name  are  spoken  of,  the  noun  becomes 
in  some  degree  common,  and  admits  the  plural  form  and  ah  article  ;  as.  The 
Stuarts, — The  Ccesars :  so  likewise  when  such  nouns  are  used  to  denote  char- 
acter; as,  "  The  Anstotles,  the  Tullys,  and  the  Livys.'"— Burgh. 

()b3.  8. — The  proper  names  of  ■nations  and  societies  are  generally  plural ; 
aud,  except  in  a  direct  address,  they  are  usually  coustrued  with  the  definite 
article:  as,  The  Greeks, —  The  Jesuits. 

Obs.  9.— When  a  title  is  prefixed  to  a  proper  hama  so  as  to  form  a  sort  of 
compound,  the  name,  and  not  the  title,  is  varied  to  form  the  plural ;  as.  The 
Miss  Hoicards,—The  two  Mr,  Chirks.  But  a  title  not  regarded  as  a  part  of 
one  compound  name,  must  be  made  plural,  if  it  refer  to  more  than  one ;  as, 
Messrs.  Lambert  and  Soti, —  The  Lords  (Jalthorpe  and  Erskine, — The  Lords 
Bishops  of  Durham  and  St.  David's,— The  Lords  Commissioners  of  Justiciary. 

Obs.  10. — Some  nouns  have  no  singular ;  as,  embers,  ides,  oats,  scissors, 
tongs,  vespers,  literati. 

6bs.  11. — Some  nouns  are  alike  in  both  numbers;  as,  sheep,  deer,  vermin, 
swine,  hose,  means,  odds,  news,  species,  series,  apparatus.  The  following  aro 
sometimes  coustrued  as  singular,  but  more  frequently,  and  more  properly, 
as  plural:  alms,  amends,  pains,  riches'  ethics,  mathematics,  m£laphysics, 
optics,  piolitics,  pneumatics,  and  other  similar  names  of  sciences.  Bellows  and 
(fallows  are  properly  alike  in  both  numbers  ;  (as,  "  LetagaUows  be  made."— 
Esther,  V  14.  "The  bellows  are  hnrnecV—Jer.,  vi.,  29  ;)  but  they  have  a 
regular  plural  in  vulgar  use.  Bolus,  fungus,  isthmus,  prospectus,  aud  rebus, 
admit  the  regular  plural. 

Obs.  12. — Compounds  in  which  the  principal  word  is  put  first,  vary  the 
principal  word  to  form  the  plural,  and  the  adjunct  to  form  the  possessive 
case:  as,  Sing,  father-in-law,  V\m.  fathei-s-in-law,  Voaa.  father-in-law's ;~ 
Sing,  court-martial,  Plur.  courts-martial,  Poss.  court-martiaVs.  The  Possess- 
ive^lural  of  such  nouns  is  never  used. 

Obs.  13.— Compounds  ending  in  ful,  and  all  those  in  which  the  principal 
word  is  put  last,  form  the  plural  in  the  same  manner  as  other  nouns ;  as, 
Tiandfids,  spoonfuls,  mouthfuls,  felhw-servants,  uiannservants,  outpourings, 
ingatherings,  downsittings. 

Obs.  14.— Nouns  of  multitude,  when  taken  collectively,  generally  admit 
the  plural  form ;  as,  meeting,  meetings  :  but  when  taken  distributively,  they 
have  a  plural  signification,  -svithout  the  form ;  es,  "  The  Jury  were  divided.' 
0b3.  15.— When  other  parta  of  speech  become  noucis,  they  either  want  the 


CHAP.  III.]  ETYMOLOGY —NOUNS.— GENDER  51 

plural,  or  firm  >,  regtilarly,  like  common  nonna  of  tho  same  endings ;  as, 
''His  affairs  •vvcat  cm  at  sixes  and  seoensy—Arhuthnot.  "  Some  niathcniati- 
cians  ha  /e  pi  '^j^fihcd  to  compute  by  twoes ;  othem,  hy  fours ;  others^  by  twelves.''' 
—Churchill.  "i^hrcc  fo-urths,  nine  tenths."— Id.  "  Time's  to^t«^s  and  kav-' 
inns:'— Barton.  '■'■Thayeas  and  m>/s.'''— Newspaper.  "The  ays  and  noes.''' 
—Ibid.  "The  tns  and  the  outs."— Ibid.  ''llnAunds  and  his  ors.'"—Mbtt. 
"  One  of  the  buts:''—Fuwle.     "  In  raising  the  mirth  of  stupids."— Steele. 

GENDERS. 

Genders,  in  grammar,  are  modifications  that  distin- 
guish objects  in  regard  to  sex. 

Obs.— The  different  genders  are  founded  on  the  natural  distinction  of  se* 
in  animals,  and  on  the  absence  of  sex  in  other  things.  In  English,  they  be- 
long only  to  nouns  and  pronouns ;  and  to  these  they  are  usually  applied 
agreeably  to  the  order  of  nature.  Pronouns  are  of  the  same  gender  as  tho 
nouns  for  which  they  stand. 

There  are  three  genders  ;  the  masculine,  the  feminine, 
and  the  neuter. 

The  masculine  gender  is  that  which  denotes  persons  or 
animals  of  the  male  kind ;  as,  man,  father,  king. 

The  femimne  gender  is  that  which  denotes  persons  or 
animals  of  the  female  kind ;  as,  icoman,  mother,  queen. 

The  neuter  gender  is  that  which  denotes  things  that 
are  neither  male  nor  female ;  as,  pen,  ink,  iMper. 

Obs.  1. — Some  nouns  are  equally  applicable  to  both  sexes;  as,  cousin, 
friend,  neighbour,  parent,  person,  servant.  The  gender  of  these  is  usually 
determined  by  the  context.  To  such  words,  some  grammarians  have  applied 
the  unnecessary  and  improper  term  common  gender.  Murray  justly  observes, 
"  There  is  no  such  gender  belonging  to  the  language.  The  business  of 
parsing,  can  be  effectually  performed  without  having  recourse  to  a  common 
gender:''  The  term  is  more  useful,  and  less  liable  to  objection,  as  applied  to 
the  learned  languages ;  but  with  us  it  is  plainly  a  solecism. 

Obs.  2. — Generic  names,  even  when  construed  as  masculine  or  feminine, 
often  virtually  include  both  sexes  ;  as,  "Hast  thou  given  the  horse  strength  i 
hast  thou  clothed  his  neck  with  thunder?"—"  Doth  the  hawk  fly  by  thy  wis- 
dom, and  stretch  her  wings  toward  the  south  ?" — Job.  These  have  been 
called  epicene  nouns — that  is,  supercommon '^  but  they  are  to  be  parsed  each 
according  to  the  gender  of  the  pronoun  which  is  put  for  it. 

Obs.  3. — Those  terms  -which  are  equally  applicable  to  both  sexes,  (if  they 
are  not  expressly  applied  to  females,)  and  those  plurals  which  are  known  to 
include  both  sexes,  should  be  called  masculine  in  parsing ;  for^  in  all  lan- 
guages, the  masculine  gender  is  considered  the  most  worthy,  and  is  generally 
employed  when  both  sexes  are  included  under  one  common  term. 

Obs.  4. — The  sexes  are  distinguished  in  three  ways : 

I.  By  the  use  of  different  names :  as,  bachelor,  Tnaid ;  boy,  girl ;  brother, 
sister;  b-uck,  doe;  bull,  cow;  cock,  hen;  drake,  duck;  earl,  countess ; father, 
r/wther ;  friar,  nun;  gander,  goose ;  hart,  roe;  horse,  mare;  husband,  wife; 
ling,  queen  ;  lad,  lass;  lord,  lady  ;  vvin,  woman;  master,  mistress;  milter, 
spawner ;  nepheio,  niece;  ram,  ewe;  sloven,  slut;  son,  daughter  ;  stag,  hind; 
steer,  heifer  ;  uncle,  wunt ;  wizard,  witch. 

II.  By  the  use  of  different  terminations :  as,  abbot,  abbess ;  administrator, 
administratrix  ;  adulterer,  adulteress  ;  bridegroom,  bride;  caterer,  cateress  ; 
duke,  duchess ;  emperor,  emperess  or  empress  ;  executor,  executrix ;  gavernm; 
governess;  hero,  heroine;   landgrave,  landgravine;  margrave,  margraoinf 


t 


62  INSTITUTES  OF  ENGLISH   GRAMMA!!.      [PART  II 

marquis,  marchioness ;  sorcerer,  sorceress  ;  sultan,    sultaness  or  sultana  /  tes- 
tator, testatrix  ;  tutor,  tutoress  or  tutress  ;  widower,  widoiv. 
.  The  following;  nouns  become  feminine  by  merely  adding  ess ;  haron,  deacon, 
heir,  host,  jew,  lion,  mayor,  patron,  pter,  poet,  prinst,  prir/r,  prophet,  shepherd, 
viscount. 

The  following  nouns  become  feminine  by  rejecting  the  last  vowel,  and 
adding  ess;  actor,  ambassador,  arbiter,  benefactor,  chanter,  condvctor,  doctor, 
elector,  enchanter,  founder,  hunter,  idolafor,  inventor,  prince,  protector,  song- 
ster, spectator,  suitor,  tiger,  traitor,  votary. 

III.  By  prefixing  an  attribute  of  distinction :  as,  cock-sparrow,  hen-sparrow; 
man-sercant,  maidservant;  he-goat,  she-goat;  male  relations, female  relations. 

Obs.  5. — The  names  of  things  without  life,  used  literally,  arc  always  of 
the  neuter  gender.  But  inanimate  objects  are  often  represented  figuratively, 
as  having  sex.  Things  remarkable  for  power,  greatness,  or  sublimity,  are 
spoken  of  as  masculine ;  as,  the  sun,  time,  death,  sleep,  fear,  anger,  winter, 
war.  Things  beautiful,  amiable,  or  prolific,  are  spoken  of  as  feminine  ;  as, 
the  moon,  earth,  nature,  fortune,  knowledge,  hope,  spring,  peace. 

Obs.  6. — Nouns  of  multitude,  when  they  convey  the  idea  of  unity,  or  take 
the  plural  form,  are  of  the  neuter  gender ;  but  when  they  convey  the  idea 
of  plurality  without  the  form,  they  follow  the  gender  of  the  individuals  that 
compose  the  assemblage. 

Obs.  7. — Creatures  whose  sex  is  unknown,  or  unnecessary  to  be  regarded, 
are  generally  spoken  of  as  neuter;  as,  "  He  fired  at  the  deer,  and  wounded 
if'' — "If  a  man  shall  steal  au  ox  or  o.  sheep,  and  kill  it  or  sell  i<;"  &c. — 
Exodus,  xxii,  1, 

CASES. 

Cases,  in  grammar,  are  modifications  that  distinguish 
the  relations  of  nouns  and  pronouns  to  other  words. 

Obs. — The  cases  are  founded  on  the  different  relations  under  which  thin&s 
are  represented  in  discourse,  and  from  which  the  words  acquire  correspond- 
ent relations,  or  become  dependent  one  on  an  other,  according  to  the  sense. 
In  English,  these  modifications,  or  i-elations,  belong  only  to  nouns  and  pro- 
nouns.   Pronouns  are  not  necessarily  like  their  antecedents,  in  case. 

There  are  three  cases ;  the  nominative,  the  possessive^ 
and  the  objective. 

The  nominative  case  is  that  form  or  state  of  a  noun  or 
pronoun,  which  usually  denotes  the  subject  of  a  finite 
verb :  as,  The  hoij  runs ;  /  run. 

Oes. — The  subject  of  a  finite  verb  is  that  which  answers  to  who  or  what 
before  it ;  as,  "The  boy  runs" —  Who  runs ?  The  boy.  Hoy  is  therefore 
here  in  the  nominative  case. 

The  possessive  case  is  that  form  or  state  of  a  noun  or 
pronoun,  which  usually  denotes  the  relation  of  jjroperty: 
as,  The  boy^s  hat;  7ny  hat. 

Obs.  1. — The  possessive  case  of  nouns  is  formed,  in  the  singular  number, 
by  adding  to  the  nominative  s preceded  by  an  apostrophe  ;  and,  in  the  plural, 
when  the  nominative  ends  in  s,  by  adding  an  apostrophe  only:  as,  singular, 
loy''s;  plural,  boys\- — sounded  alike,  but  written  difterently. 

Obs.  2.— Plural  nouns  that  do  not  end  in  «,  usually  form  the  possessiva 
case  in  the  same  manner  as  the  singular ;  as,  mnii's,  men''s. 

Obs.  3. — When  the  singular  and  the  plural  are  alike  in  the  nominative, 
the  apostrophe,  which  (aa  Dr.  Johnson  hag  shown)  is  merely  a  sign  of  tha 


CHAP.  III.]  ETYMOLOGY.— NOUNS.— CASES. 


53 


case,  and  not  of  elision,  ought  to  follow  the  s  in  the  plural,  to  dibtiuguish  ib 

i'romthaxhii^ahu-;  a»,  sheep's,  sheej)s\  ,..-,» 

Obs.  4.— Tiio  uposfnj-jj/uc  a  adds  a  syllabic  to  the  noun,  when  it  wul  not 

unite  with  the  sound  m  which  the  uominativo  ends  ;  us,  torch  s,  pronounced 

Obs.' 5.— The  apostrophe  and  s  are  sometimes  added  to  mere  characters,  to 
denoUi  piuraliti/,  and  not  the  possessive  case ;  as,  Two  a's— three  i's— four 
9'8.  In  tiic  following  example,  they  are  used  to  givo  the  sound  ot  a  verbal 
termination  to  words  that  are  not  properly  verbs:  "  When  a  man  in  a  sohl- 
oquy  reasons  with  himself,  and  j>ro's  ai>d  cofi's,  and  weighs  all  his  designs," 
&c. — Congreve. 

The  ohjedive  case  is  that  form  or  state  of  a  noun  or 
pronoun,  wbich  usually  denotes  the  object  of  a  verb, 
participle,  or  preposition  :•  as,  I  know  the  hoij  ;  be  knows 
me. 

Obs.  1.— The  object  of  a  verb,  participle,  or  preposition,  is  that  which  an- 
Bwers  to  wJwm  o\  what  after  it ;  as,  "  I  know  the  boy."— I  know  w/^owi?  The 
loy.    Boy  is  therefore  here  in  tlie  objective  case. 

Obs.  2.— The  nominative  and  the'  objecti^■e  of  nouns,  are  always  alike  ia 
form,  being  distinguishable  from  each  other  only  by  their  place  in  a  sen- 
tence, or  their  simple  dependence  according  to  the  sense. 

THE   DECLENSION   OF   NOUNS. 

The  declension  of  a  noun  is  a  regular  arrangement  of  its 
numbers  and  cases.     Thus  : — 


:ZXAMPLE    I. FRIEND. 

Sing. 

Nom. 

Poss. 

Obj. 

friend,           Plur,  Nom. 
friend's,                    Poss. 
friend ;                     Obj. 

EXAMPLE    II. MAN. 

friends, 
friends', 
friends. 

Sing. 

Nom. 

Poss. 

Obj. 

man,              Plur.  Nom. 
man's,                      Poss. 
man ;                        Obj. 

EXAMPLE    III. FOX. 

men,    . 
men's, 
men. 

Sing. 

Nom, 
Poss. 

Obj. 

fox,               Plur.  Nom. 
fox's,                        Poss. 
fox ;                          Obj. 

EXAMPLE    IV. FLY. 

foxes, 

foxes', 

foxes. 

6mg. 

Nom. 
Poss. 
Obj. 

fly,                 Plur.  Nom. 
fly's,                          Poss. 
fly ;                            Obj. 

flies, 

flies', 

flies. 

'54  INSTITUTES   OF  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR.       lPART  IL 


ANALYSIS. 

Analysis  is  the  separation  of  a  sentence  into  the  parta' 
which  compose  it. 

Every  sentence  must  contain,  at  least,  two  principal 
parts  ;  namely,  the  suhjcci  and  the  predicate. 

The  subject  of  a  senteno*  is  that  of  which  it  treats ; 
as,  "  The  sun  has  set." — ;"  Can  you  write  ?" 

The  predicate  \6  that  which  expresses  the  action,  being, 
or  passion,  as  belonging  to  the  subject.  It  is  therefore 
always  a  verb. 

Any  combination  of  the  subject  and  predicate  is  called 
a  pro2)osition. 

A  simple  sentence  is  one  that  contains  only  one  pro- 
position ;  as,  "Fire  burns."' — "The  truth  will  prevail." 

Sentences  are  divided,  with  respect  to  the  nature  of 
the  propositions  which  they  contain,  into  four  classes ; 
declarative,  interrogative,  imperative,  and  exclamatory, 

A  sentence  is  declarative  when  it  expresses  an  affir- 
mation or  hegation  ;  interrogative,  when  it  expresses  a 
question;  imperative,  when  it  expresses  a  command; 
and  exclamatory,  when  it  expresses  an  exclamation. 

Ob3.  1. — The  predicate  being  always  a  verb,  the  subject  of  the  sentence  13 
the  subject  of  the  verb,  as  detiued  in  Ol/s.  page  b'i.  'ihe  object  of  the  verb, 
wheu  tlie  latter  is  the  predicate  of  a  sentence,  may  be  considered  one  of  the 
principal  parts  of  the  sentence.  It  properly,  however,  modifies  the  verb, 
and  is  not  a  pr'vtnary  element  of  the  sentence.  In  imperative  sentences,  tho 
subject  is  the  pronoun  ihou  or  7/o«  (understood).  For  the  definition  of  the 
object  of  a  verb,  see  Obs.  1,  page  i>o. 

Obs.  2.— There  are  pometimes  used  in  connection  with  a  sentence,  words 
that  form  uo  part  of  its  structure.  Such  words  are  said  to  be  independent. 
A  noun  or  a  pronoun  may  bo  independent  in  various  ways  ;  as, 

1.  The  name  of  a    person  or  thing  addressed;  as,  "  t/o/w,  when  will 

you  go  ?"-"  O  ye  of  little  faith  !" 

2.  The  name  of  a  person  or  thing  which  is  the  subject  of  an  exclama- 

tion ;  as,  "Alas,  poor  Jw-w-i/" 
S.  An  expletive  word  used  merely  to  make  the  subject  or  object  em- 
]ihatic ;  as,  "  The  Spring — she  is  a  blessed  thing  !" — "  Gad,  a  troop 
shall  overcome  him." 
Such  nouns  and  pronouns,  although  independent  in  state,  require  tho 
form  of  the  nominative  case,  and  therefore,  in  parsing,  should  be  said  to  be 
in  that  case.    Interjections  are  always  independent. 

EXERCISES  IN  ANALYSIS  AND  PARSING. 

PRAXIS   II. — ETYMOLOGICAL. 

Jn  the  Second  Praxis,  it  is  required  of  the  pupil — to  state 
whether  the  sentence  is  declarative^  interroyative,  imperative^ 


CHAP.  III.]  ETYMOLOGY. — ADJECTIVES.  65 

or  cxclamatnrij  ;  to  analyze  it  hi;  pointinr/  out  the  subject,  pred- 
icate, and  object  ;  and  to  2}arse  it  by  distinguishing  the  different 
jiarts  of  speech,  and  the  classes  and  modifications  of  the 
nouns.     Thus  : — 


EXAMPLE    ANALYZED    AND    PARSED. 

*'  Columbus  studied  geography," 

Analysis. — This  is  a  simple  declarative  sentence.  The  subject  is  Columbus  f 
the  predicate,  studied  y  the  object,  geogra-phy. 

VAssTNG.—Q)him/ivs  is  a  proper  noun,  because  it  is  the  name  of  a  particular 
hidividual ;  it  is  of  the  third  person,  because  it  is  the  name  of  a  per- 
son spoken  of;  of  the  singular  number,  because  it  denotes  but  one  ; 
of  the  masculine  gender,  because  it  is  the  name  of  a  male ;  and  in  the 
nominative  ease,  because  it  is  the  subject  of  the  verb  studied. 

Studied  is  a  verb,  because  it  signifies  action. 

Geography  is  a  common  noun,  because  it  is  the  name  of  a  thing  sui  generic  ; 
(see  page  48).  It  is  of  the  third  person,  because  it  is  spoken  of;  of 
the  singular  number,  because  it  denotes  but  one  ;  of  the  neuter  gen- 
der, because  it  is  neither  male  nor  female  ;  and  in  the  objective  case, 
because  it  is  the  object  of  the  verb  studied. 

Generosity  makes  friends.  Can  indolence  bestow  wealth  ? 
Despise  meanness.  Can  man  avoid  errors  ?  Does  Eliza  under- 
stand Italian  ?  Love  truth.  Perseverance  overcomes  obstacle^ 
What  did  you  say  ?  Diligence  deserves  praise.  It  should  be 
rewarded.  Could  he  have  avoided  disgrace  ?  Romulus  founded 
Rome.  Forgetfulness  cures  sorrow.  Can  liars  respect  them- 
selves ?  Do  they  fear  God  ?  Birds  sing.  Cowards  fear  death. 
Sinners  feel  remorse.  Has  John  returned  ?  Time  flies.  Plants 
produce  fruit.  Observation  increases  knowledge.  Mortal, 
prepare.  Take  warning,  youth  !  Liberty,  it  has  fled !  Elec- 
tricity causes  lightning.  Avarice  extinguishes  generosity.  In- 
tegrity inspires  confideuce.     Who  can  tiHist  liars  ? 


CHAPTER  IV.— OF  ADJECTIVES. 

An  Adjective  is  a  word  added  to  a  noun  or  pronoun, 
and  generally  expresses  quality :  as,  A  wise  man  ;  a  new 
book.     You  two  are  diligent. 

CLASSES. 

Adjectives  may  be  divided  into  six  classes  ;  namely, 
common,  proper^  numeral^  pronominal,  participial^  and 
compound. 


56  INSTITUTES  OF  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR.       [PART IL 

I.  A  common  adjective  is  any  ordinary  epithet,  or  ad- 
jective denoting  quality  or  situation ;  as.  Good,  bad, 
peaceful,  warlike — eastern,  western,  outer,  inner. 

II.  A  proper  adjective  is  one  that  is  formed  from  a  pro- 
per name;  as,  American,  English,  Platonic. 

III.  A  numeral  adjective  is  one  that  expresses  a  defi- 
nite number  ;  as,  One,  two,  three,  four,  five,  six,  &c. 

IV.  A  pronominal  adjective  is  a  definitive  word  wliich 
may  either  accompany  its  noun,  or  represent  it  under- 
stood ;  as,  "J.Z/ join  to  guard  what  eadt  desires  to  gain." 
— Pajje.  That  is,  All  men  join  to  guard  what  each  man 
desires  to  gain. 

Y.  A  participial  adjective  is  one  that  has  the  form  of  a 
participle,  but  differs  from  it  by  rejecting  the  idea  of 
time;  as,  An  amusing  story. 

VI.  A  compound  adjective,  is  one  that  consists  of  two 
or  more  words  joined  together;  as,  Nut-brown,  laughter- 
loving,  four  footed. 

Osa.  1. — Numeral  adjectives  are  of  three  kinds:  namely, 

1.  Cardinal;  as,  One,  two,  three,  four,  five,  six,  seven,  eight,  nine,  ten, 
eleven,  twelve,  thirteen,  fourteen,  fifteen,  &c. 

2.  Ordinal;  as,  First,  second,  third,  fourth,  fifth,  sixth,  seventh,  eighth, 
ninth,  tenth,  eleventh,  twelfth,  thirteenth,  &c. 

3.  MaltipUcative ;  as,  Single  or  alone,  double  or  twofold,  triple  or  three- 
fold, quadruple  or  fourfold,  quintuple  or  fivefold,  sextuple  or  sixfold,  sep- 
tuple or  sevenfold,  octuple  or  eightfold,  &c. 

Obs.  2. — Compound  adjectives,  being  formed  at  pleasure,  are  very  numer- 
ous and  various.  Many  of  them  embrace  numerals,  and  run  on  in  a  series ; 
as,  one-leaved,  two-leaved,  ihree-lea,ved,  four-leaved,  «fcc. 

MODIFICATIONS. 

Adjectives  have,  commonl}^,  no  modifications  but  the 
forms  of  comparison. 

Comparison  is  a  variation  of  the  adjective  to  express 
quality  iu  different  degrees  ;    as,  hard,  harder,  hardest. 

There  are  three  degrees  of  comparison ;  the  positive, 
the  comparative,  and  the  superlative. 

The  positive  degree  is  that  which  is  expressed  by  the 
adjective  in  its  simple  form ;  as,  hard.,  soft,  good. 

The  comparative  degree  is  that  Avhich  exceeds  the  pos- 
itive; as,  harder,  softer,  better. 

The  superlative  degree  is  that  which  is  not  exceeded ; 
as,  hardest,  softest,  best. 

Those  adjectives  whose  signification  does  not  admit  of 


CHAP.  IV.]  ETYMOLOGY.— ADJECTIVES.— COMPARISON.      57 

different  degrees,  cannot  be  compared:  as,  two,  second, 

all,  total,  immortal,  infinite. 
I      Those  adjectives  which  may  be  Varied  in  sense,  but 
,  not  in  form,  are  compared  bj  means  of  adverbs ;  as, 
r  skillful,  more  skillful,  most  skillful — skillful,  less  skillful, 
't^least  skillful. 

REGULAR  COMPARISON. 

Adjectives  are  regularly  compared,  when  the  comparative 
degree  is  expressed  by  adding  er,  and  the  superlative,  by  add 
ing  est  to  them  ;  as. 

Positive  Comparative.  Superlative. 

great,  greater,                  greatest. 

*\vide,  wider,                    widest. 

hot,  hotter,                   hottest. 

The  regular  method  of  comparison  is  chiefly  applicable  to 
monosyllables,  and  to  dissyllables  ending  in  y  or  mute  e. 

COMPARISON  BY   ADVERBS. 

Tlie  different  degrees  of  a  quality  may  also  be  expressed, 
with  precisely  the  same  import,  by  prefixing  to  the  adjective 
the  adverbs  more  and  viost :  as,  ^vise,  more  ivise,  most  wise  / 
famous,  more  famous,  most  famous ;  amiable,  more  amiable, 
most  amiable. 

The  degrees  of  diminution  are  expressed,  in  like  manner,  by 
the  adverbs  less  and  least:  as,  wise,  less  tvise,  least  wise ;  famous, 
less  famous,  least  famous  ;  amiable,  less  amiable,  least  amiable. 

Obs.  1. — Adjectives  of  more  than  one  syllable,  except  dissyllables  ending 
in  y  or  mute  c,  rarely  admit  a  change  of  termination,  but  are  rather  compared 
by  means  of  the  adverbs :  thus  we  say,  virtuous,  taore  virtuous,  most  virtuous^ 
but  not  virtiMU-s,  virtnouser,  virtuousest. 

Obs.  2. — The  prefixing  of  an  adverb  can  hardly  be  called  ft  variation  of  tho 
adjective ;  the  words  may  with  more  propriety  be  parsed  separately,  tho 
decree  being  ascribed  to  the  adverb — or,  if  you  please,  to  loth  words ;  for 
both  are  varied  in  sense  by  the  inflection  of  the  former. 

Ob3.  3. — The  degrees  in  which  qualities  may  exist  in  nature,  are  infinitely 
various ;  but  the  only  degrees  with  which  the  grammarian  is  concerned,  ars 
those  which  our  variation  of  the  adjective  or  adverb  enables  us  to  express. 
Whenever  the  adjective  itself  denotes  these  degrees,  they  properly  belong  to 
it ;  as,  worthy,  worthier,  worthiest.  If  an  advei-o  is  employed  fortliis  purpose, 
that  also  is  compared,  and  the  two  degrees  formed  are  properly  its  own  ;  as, 
worthy,  more  worthy,  most  worthy.  But  these  same  degrees  may  be  other- 
wise expressed;  as.  worthy,  in  a  higher  degree  worthy,  in  the  highest  degree 
worthy.  Here  also  the  adjective  warthy  is  virtually  compared  as  before  ;  but 
only  the  adjective  high  is  grammatically  modified.  Many  grammarians  have 
erroneously  parsed  the  adverbs  more  and  Tnost,  less  and  least,  as  parts  of  the 
adjective. 

*  Sec  Eulcs  for  Spelling  III.  and  VI.    ' 

3* 


i58 


INSTITUTES  OF  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.       [PART  II. 


IRREGULAR   COMPARISON. 


The  following  adjectives  are  compared  irregularly:  good, 
letter,  best;  bad  or  ill,  icorse,  worst;  little,  less,  least;  much, 
more,  most;  many,  more,  most. 

Obs.  1.— In  English,  and  also  in  Latin,  most  adjectives  that  denote  placs 
or  situation,  not  only  form  the  superlative  irregularly,  but  are  also  either  re- 
dundant or  detective  in  comparison.    Thus  :— 

I.  The  following  nine  have  more  than  one  superlative  :  far,  farther  far- 
thest, farmost  or  Jar ther most ;  near,  nearer,  nearest  or  next;  fore,  former 
foremost  ox  first ;  hind,  hinder,  hindmost  or  Undermost ;  in,  inner,  inmost  or 
tnnermost;  out,  outer  or  utter,  outmost  or  titmost,  outermost  or  uttermost  •  vp 
upper,  upmost  or  vppermost ;  low,  lower,  lowest  or  lowtrmost :  late,  later  or 
latter,  latest  or  last. 

II.  Tlie  following  five  want  the  positive  :  [aft,  adv.,J  after,  aftmost,  or  af~ 
iermost;  \forth,  a&w.,]  further,  furthest  ov  f  urthermost ;  hither,  hither  most  ; 
nether,  nethermost;  under,  undermost. 

III.  The  following  want  the  comparative: //-owi, /wn^wosi!;  rear,  rear- 
most; head,  headmost;  end,  endrrwst ;  top,  topmost;  h'ottom,  bottommost;  mid 
or  middle,  midst,  midmost  or  middlemost ;  north,  northmost ;  south,  south- 
most  ;  northern,  northernmost ;  southern,  southernmost  ;  eastern,  easternmost ' 
zvestern,  westernmost.  ' 

Obs.  2.— Many  of  these  irrenfular  adjectives  are  also  in  common  use,  as 
nouns,  adverbs,  or  prepositions ;  the  sense  in  which  they  are  employed  will 
Bhow  to  what  class  they  belong'. 

Obs.  3.— The  words  ./(>;■<?  and  hind,  front  and  rear,  head  and  end,  right  and 
left,  in  and  out,  high  and  loiv,  toj)  and  bottom,  up  and  doum,  zipper  and  under, 
mid  a.nA  after,  are  often  joined  in  composition  with  other  words;  and  some 
of  them,  when  used  as  adjectives  of  place,  are  rarely  separated  from  their 
nouns ;  as,  inland,  mid-sen,  affer-agea,  &c. 

Obs.  4.— It  maybe  remarked  of 'the  comparatives, /ormer  and  latter  or 
hinder,  upper  and  under  or  nether,  inner  and  outer  or  utter,  after  and  hither  • 
as  well  asof  the  Latin  superior  and  inferior,  anterior  and  posterior,  interior 
and  exterior,  pirior  and  ulterior,  senior  and  junior,  major  and  minor;  that 
they  cannot,  like  other  comparatives,  be  construed  with  the  conjunction 
than,  introdcuing  the  latter  term  of  comparison  ;  tor  we  never  say,  one  thinw 
is  former,  superior,  cfcc,  than  an  other.  ° 

Oes.  b.— Common  adjectives,  or  epithets  denoting  quality,  are  more  numer- 
ous than  all  the  other  classes  put  together.  Many  of  these,  and  a  few  that 
Dxa  pronominal,  may  be  varied  by  comparison  ;  and  some  participial  ixdSea- 
tives  may  be  compared  by  means  of  the  adverbs.  But  adjectives  formed 
irom proper  names,  all  the  numerals,  vend,  most  of  the  compounds,  wq 'm.  ua 
„.  way  susceptible  of  comparison. 

Obs.  6. — Nouns  are  often  used  as  adjectives ;  as,  An  iron  bar— An  evening 
school— A  maJiogany  chair— A  South-Sea  dream.  These  also  are  incapable 
of  comparison. 

Obs.  7. — The  numerals  are  often  used  as  nouns ;  and,  as  such,  are  regularly 
declined;  as,  Such  a  one— One's  own  self— The  little  ones-—liy  tens— For 
t/iventy's  sake — Bj fifties — Two  millions. 

Obs.  8.— Comparatives,  and  the  word  other,  are  sometimes  also  employed 
as  nouns,  and  have  the  regular  declension;  as,  Onr  superi,ors—'il\s  betters—- 
Theelder^s  advice— An*  other's  wo — Let  otfiers  do  as  they  will.  But,  as  ad- 
jectives, these  words  are  invariable. 

Obs.  a. — Pronominal  adjectives,  when  their  nouns  are  expressed,  simply 
relate  to  them,  and  have  no  modifications :  except  this  and  that,  which  form 

*  There  seems  to  be  no  good  reason  for  joining  (X??.  and  other.  ^4 ?i  here  excludes 
any  other  article;  and  analojzy  and  consistency  require  that  the  words  be  separated. 
Tlieir  union  lias  led  sometimes  to  an  improper  repetition  of  the  article;  as,  'Another 
6uch  a  man,' — for,  '  An  other  such  ujaa.' 


CHAP.  IV.]  ETYMOLOGY. — ANALYSIS.  59 

the  plural  these  and  those;  and  much,  many,  and  a  few  others,  ;phich  are 
compared. 

Obs.  10. — Pronominal  adjectives,  when  their  nouns  are  not  expressed,  may 
be  parsed  as  representing  them  in  prmon,  number,  gender,  and  case :  hut 
those  who  prefer  it,  may  supply  the  ellipsis,  and  parse  the  adjective  simply 
as  an  adjective. 

Obs.  11. — The  following  are  the  principal  pronominal  adjectives :  All,  any, 
both,  certain,  divers,  each,  either,  else,  enough,  every,  few,  former,  first,  latter, 
last,  little,  less,  least,  mvch,  many,  more,  most,  neither,  no  or  none,*  one,  only, 
other,  own,  same,  several,  some,  such,  this,  that,  these,  those,  which,  what. 

Obs.  12.—  Which  and  what,  when  they  are  not  prefixed  to  nouns,  arc,  for 
the  most  part,  relative  or  interrogative  pronouns. 


ANALYSIS 

Words,  added  to  either  of  the  principal  parts  of  a 
sentence  to  modify  or  limit  its  meaning,  are  called  ad- 
juncts.     Adjuncts  are  sometimes  called  modifications. 

They  are  divided  into  two  classes,  jyrimwnj  and  sec- 
ondary  adjuncts. 

Primary  adjuncts  are  those  added  directly  to  either  of 
the  principal  parts;  as,  "  Good  books  always  deserve  a 
careful  perusal." 

Secondary  adjuncts  are  those  added  to  other  adjuncts; 
as,  ^'^  Suddenly  acquired  wealth  very  rarely  brings  happi- 
ness." 

Adjuncts  are  divided,  with  respect  to  their  office,  into 
three  classes ;  namely,  adjective^  adverbial,  and  explan- 
atory. 

An  adjective  adjunct  is  one  used  to  modify  or  limit  a 
noun  or  a  pronoun ;  as,  "  Both  those  had  boys  deserve 
severe  punishment." 

An  adverbial  adjunct  is  one  used  like  an  adverb ;  as, 
"  Eemember  now  thy  Creator  in  the  days  of  thy  youth.'''' 

An  explanatory  adjunct  is  one  used  to  explain  a  pre- 
•^eding  noun  or  pronoun ;  as,  "  The  emperor  Napoleon 
was  banished." — "  We,  the  people,  ordain  this  constitu- 
tion." 

The  subject  or  the  object  in  a  sentence,  may  he  modified  by 
adjective  or  explanatory  adjuncts  of  various  forms  ;  as, 

*  No  and  tiane  seem  to  be  only  different  forms  of  the  same  adjective ;  the  former 
being  used  before  a  nonn  expressed,  and  the  latter  when  the  n.Miii  i>  iiiiilor>(iiyn,  nr 
not  placed  after  the  adjective  ;  as,  "  For  none  of  us  liveth  to  himself,  and  no  ioua 
Uieth  to  himself" — Romans,  siv.  7. 


60  •  INSTITUTES  OF  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR.      [PART  II. 

1.  By  an  article  or  an  adjective  ;  as,  "  The  diligent  scholar 

improves." 

2.  By    a   noun   or  2^'>'(^^oun   in    tlic    possessive   case ;  as, 

Williani's  sister  has  lost  her  book." 

3.  By  a  verb  used   as  an  adjective  ;  as,  "  The  desire  to 

excel  is  laudable." 

4.  By  a  prepositio>i   and  its   object,  used  together  as   an 

adjective  ;  as,  "A  man  of  integrity  obeys  the  dictates 
of  conscience^'' 

5.  By  a  noun  ov  jjronoun  used  as  an  explanatory  adjunct; 

as,  "  His  brother,  Charles,  is  idle." 

The  predicate  of  a  sentence  may  be  modified  by  adverbial 
adjuncts  of  various  forms  ;  as, 

1.  By  an  adverb  ;   as,  "The  sun  shines  brightly T 

2.  By  a  iircposition  and  its   object,  used  together  as  an 

adverb;  as,  "He  came  f-om  Boston.'''' 


EXERCISES  IN  ANALYSIS  AND  PARSING. 

PRAXIS   III. — ETYMOLOGICAL, 

Jn  the  Third  Praxis,  it  is  required  oj  the  pu2nl — to  classify 
and  analyze  the  sentence  as  in  the  preceding  praxis  y  to  point 
out,  in  addition,  the  adjuncts  of  each  of  the  principal  parts, 
and  distinguish  their  classes  ;  and  to*  parse  the  sentence  by 
distinguishing  the  different  parts  of  speech,  and  the  classes 
and  modifications  of  the  nouns,  and  adjectives,  distinguish- 
ing also  the  article  as  definite  or  indefinite.      Thus: — 

EXAMPLE    ANALYZED    AND    PARSED. 

"The  Athenians  carefully  observed  Solon's  wise  laws." 

Analysis. — This  is  a  simple  declarative  sentence. 

The  subject  IS  Athenians  ;  the  predicate,  ohsermd  ;  the  ohject,  law;^. 

The  subject  is  limited  by  the  adjective  adjunct,  the ;  tlie  predicate  is  modi- 
fied by  the  adverbial  adjunct,  carefully ;  and  the  object  is  modiiied  by 
the  adjective  adjuncts,  Solon's  and  wise. 

Parsing. — Tfte  is  the  definite  article,  because  it  limits  the  noun  Athenians. 

Athenians  is  a  proper  noun,  because  it  is  the  name  of  a  particular  people. 
(Modifications  as  in  the  preceding  praxis.) 

Carefulli)  is  an  adverb,  because  it  is  added  to  the  verb  observed,  and  ex- 
presses manner. 

Observed  is  a  verb,  because  it  expresses  action. 

Solon''s  is  a  proper  noun,  because  it  is  the  name  of  a  particular  individual; 
it  is  of  the  third  person,  singular  number,  masculine  gender,  and  in 
the  possessive  case,  because  it  indicates  the  possession  of  laws. 

Wise  is  a  common  adjective,  because  it  simply  expresses  the  quality  of 
laws. 

Laws  is  a  common  noun,  becauso  it  is  the  name  of  a  class  of  things. 


CHAP,  v.]  ETYMOLOGY. — PRON-QUNS.  61 

Pleasure's  call  always  wins  an  eager  attention. 

Avarice  rapidly  extinguishes  every  generous  emotion. 

King  Belshazzar  made  a  great  feast. 

Every  person  highly  praised  William's  noble  conduct. 

Where  did  your  kind  father  buy  that  interesting  book  ? 

The  French  ambassador  immediately  presented  his  cre- 
dentials. 

This  benevolent  young  lady  kindly  teaches  many  poor  children. 

Kiotous  indulgence  rapidly  destroys  the  bodily  vigor. 

This  enterprising  merchant  has  just  returned  from  Europe. 

The  study  of  astronomy  greatly  elevates  the  mind. 

Indulgence  in  sloth  can  never  lead  to  prosperity. 

Charles's  resignation  filled  all  Europe  with  astonishment. 

The  beautiful  prospects  of  nature  always  excite  the  warmest 
admiration  of  mankind. 

The  powerful  eloquence  of  Demosthenes  excited  the  fierce 
indignation  of  Athens  against  Philip  of  Macedon. 


CHAPTER  Y.— OF  PRONOUNS. 

A  Pronoun  is  a  word  used  in  stead  of  a  noun :  as, 
The  boy  loves  his  book;  he  has  long  lessons,  and  he 
learns  them  well. 

Obs.  1. — The  word  for  which  a  pronoun  stands,  is  called  its  antecedent, 
because  it  usually  precedes  the  pronoun.  But  some  have  limited  the  term 
antecedent,  to  the  word  represented  by  a  relative. 

Obs.  2. — The  pronouns  /  and  thou  iii  their  different  modifleations,  stand 
immediately  for  persons  that  are,  in  general,  sufficiently  known  without  be- 
ing named;  (/meaning  the  speaker,  and  iliou  the  hearer;)  their  antecedents 
are  therefore  generally  xinderstood. 

Obs.  3. — The  other  personal  pronouns  are  sometimes  taken  in  a  general 
or  absolute  sense,  to  denote  persons  or  things  not  previously  mentioned ;  as, 
'■^He  that  hath  knowledge,  spareth  his  words." 

0b3.  4. — A  pronoun  with  which  a  question  is  asked,  stands  for  some  per- 
son or  thing  unknown  to  the  speaker;  the  noun,  therefore,  cannot  occur 
before  it,  but  may  be  used  after  it  or  instead  of  it. 

Obs.  5. — The  personal  and  the  interrogative  pronouns  often  stand  in  cou- 
atruction  as  the  antecedents  to  other  pronouns  ;  as.  He  that  arms  his  intent 
with  virtue  is  invincible." — "  Who  that  has  any  moral  sense,  dares  tell  lies  J" 

CLASSES. 

Pronouns  are  divided  into  three  classes ;  jjersona?,  rel- 
ative^ and  interrogative. 

I.  A  personal  pronoun  is  a  pronoun  that  shows,  by  its 
form,  of  what  person  it  is. 

The  simple  personal  pronouns  are  five  :  namely,  I,  of 


62  INSTITUTES   OF   ENGLISH   GRAMMAR.      [PART II. 

the  first  person  ;  €iou^  of  the  second  person  ;  /ze,  she^  and 
it,  of  the  third  person. 

The  compound  personal  pronouns  are  also  five :  name- 
ly, myself^  of  the  first  person  ;  thyself^  of  the  second  per- 
son ;  himself]  herself,  and  itself  of  the  third  person. 

II.  A  relative  pronoun  is  a  pronoun  that  represents  an 
antecedent  word  or  phrase,  and  connects  different  clauses 
of  a  sentence. 

The  relative  pronouns  are  who.  which,  what,  and  that ; 
and  the  compounds  lohoever  or  whosoever,  whichever  or 
whichsoever^,  whatever  or  whatsoever. 

What  is  a  kind  of  double  relative,  equivalent  to  that 
or  those  which  ;  and  is  to  be  parsed,  first  as  aiitecedent,  and 
then  as  relative. 

III.  An  interrogative  pronoun  is  a  j^ronoun  with  which 
a  question  is  asked. 

The  interrogative  pronouns  are  luho,  ivhich,  and  what; 
being  the  same  in  form  as  relatives. 

Obs  l.—  TF^o  is  usually  applied  to  persons  only:  w^M,  though  formerly 
applied  to  persons,  is  now  confiued  to  animals  and  inanimate  things  .  what 
(as  a  mere  pronoun)  is  applied  to  things  only :  that  is  applied  iuditferently 
to  persons,  animals,  or  tlimgs. 

Obs.  2.— The  pronoun  ivhat  has  a  twofold  relation,  and  is  often  used  (by 
ellipsis  of  the  noun)  both  as  antecedent  and  relative,  being  equivalent  to  that 
which,  or  the  thing  which.  In  this  double  relation,  what  represents  two  cases 
at  tlie  same  time:  as,  "  He  is  ashamed  of  ?ii7ia<  he  has  done  ;"  that  is,  of  that 
[thing]  ivhich  he  has  done.  It  is  usually  of  the  singular  number,  though 
sometimes  plural ;  as,  "  I  must  turn  to  the  faults,  or  what  appear  such  to 
m^.^—Bi/ron.  "  All  distortions  and  mimicries,  as  such,  are  what  raise  aver- 
sion in  stead  of  pleasure. — Steele. 

Obs.  8.—  What  is  sometimes  used  both  as  an  adjective  and  a  relative  at  the 


„  , god 

but  enters  yon  forbidden  field."— Po^e.  Indeed,  it  does  not  admit  of  being 
construed  after  a  noun,  as  a  simple  relative.  The  compound  whatever  or 
whatsoever  has  the  same  peculiarities  of  construction ;  as,  "  We  will  certainly 
do  whatsoever  thi,)ig  goeth  forth  out  of  our  own  mouth."— t/er.,  xliv,  17. 

Obs.  4. —  Who,  ivhich,  and  what,  when  the  affix  ever  or  soever  is  added, 
have  an  unlimited  signification ;  and,  as  some  general  term,  such  as  any 
person,  or  any  thing,  is  usually  employed  as  the  antecedent,  they  are  all  com- 
monly followed  by  two  verbs:  as,  "  'Whoever  attends,  will  improve;"  that 
is.  Any  person  who  attends,  will  improve.     In  parsing,  supply  the  antecedent. 

Obs.  5.—  Which  and  what  are  often  prefixed  to  nouns  as  definitive  or  inter- 
rogative adjectives  ;  ■  and,  as  such,  may  be  applied  to  persons  as  well  as  to 
things  :  as,  "  What  man  ?"— "  Which  boy?'' 

Obs.  6. — The  word  that  is  a  relative  pronoun,  when  it  is  equivalent  to  who, 
whom,  or  which  ;  as,  "  The  days  that  [which]  are  past,  are  gone  forever."  It 
is  a  definitive  or  pronominal  adjective,  when  it  relates  to  a  noun  expressed 
or  understood  after  it ;  as,  "  That  book  is  new."  In  other  cases,  it  is  a  con- 
junction, as,  "  Live  well,  that  you  may  die  well." 

Obs.  7.— The  relative  that  has  this  peculiarity,  that  it  cannot  follow  the 
word  ou  which  its  case  depends:  thus,  it  is  said,  [John,  xiii,  29,]      "Buy 


CHAP,  v.]   ETrMOLOGY.— PRONOUNS.— MODIF.        63 

those  things  that  we  have  need  o/";"  but  we  cannot  say,  "  Buy  those  things 
(2/"<Aa<  we  nave  need." 

Obs.  8. — The  word  <w,  though  usually  a  conjunction  or  an  adverb,  has 
sometimes  the  construction  of  a  relative  pronoun;  as,  "The  Lord  added  to 
the  church  daily  such  [persons]  as  should  be  saved." — Acts,  ii,  47. 

Ob8.  9.—  Whether  was  formerly  used  as  an  interrogative  pronoun,  refer- 
ring to  one  of  two  things  ;  as,  "  Whether  is  greater,  the  gold  or  the  temple  V 
— Matt.,  xxiii,  17. 

Obs.  10. — Interrogative  pronouns  differ  from  relatives  chiefly  in  this;  that, 
as  the  subject  referred  to  is  unknown  to  the  speaker,  they  do  not  relate  to  a 
preceding  noun,  but  to  something  which  is  to  be  expressed  in  the  answer  to 
the  question.  Their  person,  number,  and  gender,  therefore,  are  not  regulated 
by  an  antecedent  noun  ;  but  by  what  the  speaker  supposes  of  a  subject  which 
may,  or  may  not,  agree  with  them  in  these  respects  :  as,  "  What  lies  there  ?" 
Ans.  "  Two  men  asleep." 

MODIFICATIONS. 

Pronouns   liave  tlie   same   modifications   as  nouns; 
namely,  Persons,  Numbers,  Genders,  and  Cases. 

Obs.  1. — In  tiie  personal  pronouns,  most  of  these  properties  are  distin- 
guished by  the  words  themselves  ;  in  the  relative  and  the  interrogative  pro- 
nouns, they  ar'3  ascertained  chiefly  by  the  antecedent  and  the  verb. 

Obs.  2. — The  personal  pronouns  of  the  first  and  second  persons,  are  equally 
applicable  to  both  sexes  ;  and  should  be  considered  masculine  or  feminine 
accnrdin?  to  the  known  application  of  them.  [See  Levizac^s  Freivch  Gram., 
p.  73.]  The  speaker  and  the  hearer,  being  present  to  each  other,  of  course 
know  the  sex  to  which  they  respectively  belong  ;  and,  whenever  they  ap- 
pear in  narrative,  we  are  told  who  they  are.  In  Zatin,  an  adjective  or  a  par- 
ticiple relating  to  these  pronouns,  is  varied  to  agree  with  tliem  in  numier, 
gender,  and  case  ;  as, 

MisercB  hoc  tamen  unum 
Exequere,  Anna,  mihi :  solum  nam  perfdus  illo 
Te  colere,  arcanos  etiam  tibi  credere  sensus  : 
ISola  viri  molles  aditus  ct  tempora  noras. —  Virgil. 
Obs.  3. — Many  grammarians  deny  the  first  person  of  nouns,  and  the  gen- 
der of  pronouns  of  the  first  and  second  persons  ;  and  at  the  same  time  teach, 
that,  "Pronouns  must  always  agree  with  their  antecedents,  and  the  nouns  for 
which  they  stand,  in  gender,  number,  wad  person.'''' — Muri'ay's  Gram.,  'id  Ed., 
1796.    Now,  no  two  words  can  agree  in  any  property  which  belongs  not  to 
both ! 

THE   DECLENSION   OF   PRONOUNS. 

The  declension  of  a  pronoun  is  a  regular  arrangement  of  its 
numbers  and  cases. 

SIMPLE    PERSONALS. 

The  simple  personal  pronouns  are  thus  declined : — 

I,  of  the  FIRST  PERSON,  any*  of  the  genders. 

Sing.  Nom.  I,  Plur.  Nom.  we, 

Poss.   my,  or  mine,  Poss.   our,  or  ours, 

Obj.     me;  Obj.     us. 

*  That  the  pronouns  of  the  first  and  second  persons  are  sometimes  masculine  and 
sometimes  feminine,  is  perfectly  certain ;  but  whether  they  can  or  cannot  bo  neuter. 
Is  a  question  difficult  to  he  decided.    To  things  inanimate  they  are  only  appllod  figoi* 


64  INSTITUTES  OF  ENGLISH   GRAMMAK.      [PART  XL 

Thou,  of  the  second  person,  any  of  the  genders. 

Sing.  Nom.  thou,  Plur.  Nom.  ye,*  or  you, 

Poss.    thy,  or  thine,  Poss.   your,  or  yours, 

Obj.      thee;  Obj,     you. 

He,  of  the  THIRD  PERSON,  masculine  gender. 
Sing.  Nom.  he,  Plur.  Nom.  they, 

Poss.    his,  Poss.    their,  or  theirs, 

Obj.     him;  Obj.     them. 

She,  of  the  third  person,  feminine  gender. 
Sing.  Nom.  she,  Plur.  Nom,  they, 

Poss.   her,  or  hers,  Poss.    their,  or  theirs, 

Obj.     her;  Obj,     them. 

* 

It,  of  the  third  person,  neuter  gender. 

Sing.  Nom.  it,  Plur.  Nom.  they, 

Poss.    its,f  Poss.    their,  or  theirs, 

Obj.      it;  Obj.      them. 

Obb.  1. — Most  of  the  personal  pronouns  have  two  forms  of  the  possessive 
case,  in  each  number;  as,  my  or  mine,  our  or  ours  ;  thy  or  tnine,  you  or 
yours;  her  or  hers,  their  or  theirs.  The  fonner  is  used  before  a  noun  ex- 
pressed ;  the  latter,  when  the  governing  noun  is  vnderstood,  or  so  placed  as 
not  immediately  to  follow  the  pronoun  ;  as,  '■'■My  powers  are  thine.'" — Mont- 
gomery. 

Obs.  2. — Mine  and  thine  were  formerly  used  before  all  words  beginning 
with  a  vowel  sound  ;  my  and  thy,  before  others  :  as,  "  It  was  thou,  a  man, 
mine  equal,  my  guide,  and  m,ine  acquaintance." — Psalm.  But  this  usage  ia 
now  obsolete,  or  peculiar  to  the  poets  ;  as, 

"  Time  writes  no  wrinkle  on  thine  azure  brow." — Byron. 
COMPOUND     PERSONALS. 

The  word  selfX  added  to  the  simple  personal  pronouns, 
forms  the  class  of  compound  personal  pronouns  ;  which  are 
used  when  an  action  reverts  upon  the  agent,  and  also  when 

atively;  and  the  question  is,  whether  the  figure  always  necessarily  chanjjes  the  gen- 
der of  the  antecedent  noun.  Pronouns  are  of  the  same  gender  as  the  nouns  for  which 
they  stand;  and  if,  in  the  following  example,  gold  and  diamond  are  neuter,  so  is  tho 
pronoun  me.    And,  if  not  neuter,  of  what  gender  are  they  ? 

"  Where  thy  true  treasure  7     Oold  says,  '  IS'ot  in  me ; ' 
And,  '  Not  in  we,'  the  diamond.    Gold  is  poor.'" — Young. 

*  The  use  of  the  pronoun  ye  is  mostly  confined  to  the  solemn  style,  and  to  the 
burlesque.     In  the  latter,  it  is  sometimes  used  for  the  objective  case. 

t  In  ancient  times,  he,  his,  and  Aim,  were  applied  to  things  neuter.  In  our  trans- 
lation of  the  Bible,  the  pronoun  it  is  employed  in  the  nomimiti  vc  and  the  object' ve, 
but /ii«  is  retained  in  the  possessive,  neuter;  as,  "Look  not  thou  upon  ihe  wir.f, 
when  it  is  red,  wlien  it  giveth  his  color  in  the  cup,  when  it  moveth  ifse/^ariglit." — 
Prov.,  xxiii,  31.     Its  is  not  found  in  the  Bible,  except  by  misprint. 

X  The  word se^ was  originally  an.  adjective;  but  when  used  alone,  it  is  now  gen- 
erally a  noun.  This  may  have  occasioned  tlio  diversity  in  the  formatiou  of  tho 
compound  personal  pronouns.  Dr.  Johnson  calls  i,el/  a  pronoun  ;  but  he  explains 
it  as  being  adjective  and  substantive. 


CHAP,  v.]      ETYMOLOGY— PROXOUNS,— DECLENSION.      65 

some  persons  arc  to  be  distinguished  from  others  :  as,  sing. 
viyself^  plur.  ourselves;  sing,  thijselj]  pliir.  yourselves;  sing. 
himself/'^  phir.  tliemselves ;  sing,  herself^  phir,  themselves;  sing. 
z7sf//J  phir.  themselves.  They  all  want  the  possessive  case,  and 
fire  alike  in  the  nominative  and  objective. 

RELATIVES    AND    INTERROG ATI VES. 

The  relative  and  the  interrogative  pronouns  are  thus  dc 
clmed  : — 

Who,  applied  only  to  persons. 

Sing.  Nom.  who,  Plur.  Noni.  who, 

Poss.    whose,  Poss.    whose, 

Obj,      whom;  Obj.      whom, 

Which,  applied  to  animals  and  tJnngs. 
Sing.  Nom.  which,  Plur.  Nom.  which, 

Poss.    f ■  Poss.    

Obj.      which ;  Obj,      which. 

What,  generally  applied  to  things. 

Sing.  Nom.  what,  Plur.  Nom.  what, 

Poss.    Poss.    

Obj.      what;  Obj.      what. 

That,  applied  to  persons,  animals^  and  things. 

Sing.  Nom.  that,  Plur.   Nom.  that, 

Poss.    •  Poss.    ■ 

Obj.      that ;  Obj.      that. 

COMPOUND     REI.  ATIVES. 

The  compound  relative  pronouns,  whoever  or  tohosoever^ 
whichever  or  rohichsoever^  and  tohatever  or  whatsoever,  are  de- 
clined in  the  same  manner  as  the  simples,  who,  which,  what. 


ANALYSIS. 

A  clause  is  a  sentence  that  forms  a  part  of  another  sen- 
tence.    Clauses  are  either  dependent  or  independent. 
A  dependent  clause  is  one  used  as  an  adjunct,  or  as 

*  Hifiselfy  iUaelf,  ;ind  iheirselvea,  are  more  nnaloprical  than  ?iiiihself,  itfiaelf,  ihe.vi- 
selves ;  Imt  oiistoiu  lias  rejecteil  the  t'ovmer,  and  established  the  latter.  When  an  ad- 
jective is  pretixed  u>  nelf,  the  pronouns  are  written  separately  in  the  possessive  case  j 
SIS,  My  single  sell',— .1///  own  self, — His  own  self, —  Their  own  selves. 

t  Whose  is  sonietiine.i  used  as  the  possessivo  case  ol  which  ;  as,  "  A  religion  whosa 
origin  is  divine."— .fi/uic. 

6* 


66  INSTITUTES  OF  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR.      [PART  II. 

oue  of  the  principal  parts  of  a  sentence.  The  clause  on 
which  it  depends,  is  called  the  principal  clause. 

Clauses  may  be  connected  by  conjunctions,  relative 
pronouns,  or  adverbs,    . 

A  complex  se^itence  is  one  composed  of  a  principal 
clause,  and  one  or  more  dependent  clauses. 

A  compound  sentence  is  one  composed  of  two  or  more 
mdependent  clauses. 

Compound  or  complex  clauses  are  sometimes  called 

members. 

Obs. — A  clause  introduced  by  a  relative  pronoun,  is  often  called  a  relative 
clause ;  it  may  bo  dependent  or  independent;  thus  the  sentence,  "  This  is 
the  man  who  committed  the  deed^^''  is  complex  ;  because  the  relative  clause  ia 
an  adjunct  of  man,  modifying  it  like  an  adjective ;  but  "  1  gave  the  book  to 
John,  who  has  lost  it,'''  is  a  compound  sentence,  the  relati^^e  clause  not  being 
an  adjunct,  but  expressing  au  additional /act,  and  equivalent  to  "  and  he  has 
lost  it." 

EXERCISES  IN  ANALYSIS  AND  PARSING. 

PRAXIS   IV. — ETYMOLOGICAL. 

Jn  the  Fourth  Praxis,  it  is  required  of  the  ^9?/^?7 — to  clas- 
sijy  the  sentences^  to  point  out  the  component  clauses  •  to 
analyze  and  parse  each  as  in  the  j^recediwj  jjraxis  /  and  to 
state  the  classes  and  modifications  of  the  j^ronouns.     Thus  : — 

EXAMPLE    ANALYZED    AND    PARSED. 

*'  Children  who  disobey  their  parents,  deserve  punishment." 

Analysis. — This  is  a  complex  declarative  sentence ;  the  principal  clause  is. 
Children  deserve  punishment,  and  the  dependent  clause  is,  Who  disobey 
their  parents,  an  adjective  adjunct  of  children ;  the  connective  word 
is  tvho. 
The  subject  of  the  principal  clause  is  children  ;  the  predicate  is  deserve  ; 
and  the  object  is  punishment.  The  adjunct  of  the  subject  is  the  de- 
pendent clause  ;  the  other  parts  have  no  adjuncts.  The  subject  of  the 
dependent  clause  is  who;  the  predicate  is  disobey/;  the  object  is 
parents.  The  subject  and  the  predicate  have  no  adjuncts ;  the  ad- 
j  unct  of  parents  is  their. 

Faesing. —  Who  is  a  relative  pronoun,  because  it  represents  the  antecedent 
word  children,  and  connects  the  two  clauses  of  the  sentence  j^  it  is  of 
the  third  person,  because  it  represents  the  persons  spoken  ot ;  of  the 
plural  number,  because  it  denotes  more  than  one;  of  the  masculine 
gender,  because  it  is  a  term  equally  applicable  to  both  sexes  (see 
Obs.  3,  page  51)  ;*  and  in  the  nominative  ease,  because  it  is  the  subject 
of  the  verb  disobey ;  its  declension  in  both  numbers  is,  Nom.  2i)ho; 
Poss.  whose  ;  Obj.  whom. 
Their  is  a  personal  pronoun,  because  it  shows  by  its  form  that  it  is  of  the 

*  It  would  be  preferable,  in  the  opinion  of  the  editor  of  these  exercises,  to  desig- 
nate this  the  common  gender,  there  being  no  reason  to  consider  the  masculine  gen- 
der more  "  woi'tliy"  than  the  feminine.  Besides,  gender  is  not  a  distinction  of  objects 
as  to  sex,  but  a  distinction  of  ivords  with  respect  to  the  sex  zchich  thexj  denote; 
and  therefore  such  words  as  belong,  in  common,  to  both  sexes,  are  manifestly  of  tha 
common  gender. 


CHAP.  VI-       ETYMOLOGY. — VERBS. — CLASSES.  67 

third  person ;  it  is  of  tho  plural  number,  masculino  gender,  and  in 
the  possessive  case,  because  it  denotes  the  possession  of  parents.     Ita 
declension  is,  Noui.  they,  Poss.  their,  (-   theirs,  Obj.  them. 
(Parse  the  other  words  as  in  the  preceding  praxes,) 
He  who  conquers  his  passions,  overcomes  his  greatest  enemies, 
Every  teacher  must  love  a  pupil  who  evinces  a  love  of  study. 
Savages  who  have  no  settled  abode,  wander  from  place  to  place. 
Avoid  rudeness  of  manners,  Avhich  always  hurts  the  feelings  of 
others.     A  good  reader  will  often  make  a  pause,  where  no  gram- 
marian  would  place  a  point.     He  who,  in  nature,  recognizes  the 
Creator's  hand,  will  ever  survey  its  varied  scencs-with  reverence. 
The   poems  of  Homer  celebrate  the  exploits  of  Achilles,  who 
Blew  the  Trojan  prince.  Hector.     Prosperity  gains  many  friends, 
but  adversity  tries  them.     I  disregard  their   imputations,  be- 
cause I  do  not  merit  them.     When  he  had  sold  his  patrimony, 
he  engaged  m  traffic. 


CHAPTER  YI.— OF  VERBS. 

A  Verb  is  a  word  that  signifies  to  he,  to  act,  or  to  he 
acted  upon:  as,  1  am,\  rule^  I  am  ruled;  1  love,  thou 
loveslj  he  loves. 

CLASSES. 

Verbs  are  divided,  with  respect  to  their/orm,  into  foui' 
classes ;  regular^  irregular,  redundant,  and  defective. 

I.  A  regidar  verb  is  a  verb  that  forms  the  preterit  and 
the  perfect  particij^le  by  assuming  d  ored;  as^  love,  looED, 
loving,  lovED. 

IL  An  irregular  verb  is  a  verb  that  does  not  form  the 
preterit  and  the  perfect  participle  by  assuming  d  or  ed ; 
as,  see,  saw,  seeing,  seen. 

III.  A  redundant  verb  is  a  verb  that  forms  the  preterit 
or  the  perfect  participle  in  two  or  more  ways,  and  so  as 
to  be  both  regular  and  irregular ;  as,  thrive,  thrived  or 
throve,  thriving,  thrived  or  thriven. 

IV.  A  defective  verb  is  a  verb  that  forms  no  participles, 
and  is  used  in  but  few  of  the  moods  and  tenses ;  as,  be- 
ware, ought,  quoth. 

Ob8.— Kegular  verbs  form  their  preterit  and  perfect  participle,  by  adding 
d  to  final  e,  and  ed  to  all  other  terminations.  The  verb  hear,  heard,  htaringy 
lizard,  adds  d  to  r,  and  is  therefore  irregular. 


68  INSTITUTES   OF   ENGLISH   GRAMMAR.      [PART  II. 

Yerbs  are  divided  again,  witli  respect  to  their  signifi- 
cation^ into  four  classes  ;  active-transitive,  active-intransitiv& 
^passive,  and  neuter. 

I.  An  active-transitive  verb  is  a  verb  that  expresses  an 
action  which  has  some  person  or  thing  for  its  object;  as, 
'^CixmsleivAhcC 

II.  An  actlve-intrcinsitive  verb  is  a  verb  that  expresses 
an  ac'ion  Avhich  has  no  j^erson  or  thing  for  its  object; 
as,  "John  icalksJ' 

III.  A  j^ci^sive  verl)  is  a  verb  that  represents  its  subject, 
or  nominative,  as  being  acted  upon ;  as,  "  I  ain  com- 
pellecV 

IV.  A  neuter  verb  is  a  verb  that  expresses  neither  ac- 
tion nor  passion,  but  simplj  being,  or  a  state  of  being ; 
as,  "  Thou  artj' — "  He  sleepsJ' 

Ods.  1. — In  most  gramraara  and  dictionaries,  verbs  arc  divided  into  three 
classes  only;  actlce,  passive,  and  7ieuter.  In  such  a  divisidn,  the  class  of  ac- 
tive  verbs  includes  those  only  which  are  actine-transiiive,  and  all  the  acUoe- 
intransitive  verbs  are  called  neuter.  But,  ni  the  division  adopted  above, 
cctive-mtransUivexevhs  arc  made  a  distinct  class ,  and  those  only  are  regarded 
as  neuter,  which  imply  o  state  of  existence  without  action,  When,  there- 
fore, we  speak  of  verbs  without  reference  to  their  regimen,  wo  apply  the 
simple  term  active  to  all  those  which  express-  actian^  whether  transitiee  or 
intransitive.  "  We  act  whenever  we  do  any  thing;  but  we  may  act  without 
doing  any  thing." — Crabb's  Sytwnymes. 

Ob3.  2. — Active-transitive  verbs  generally  take  the  agent  before  them  and 
the  object  afterthem ;  as,  "  QiE9.a.r conquey-eii  roinpcy."  Passive  verbs  (which 
are  derived  from  active-transitive  verbs)  reverse  this  order,  and  denote  that 
the  subject,  or  nominative,  is  ati'ected  by  the  action  ;  and  the  agent  follows, 
being  introduced  by  the  preposition  by:  as,  "  Fompey  was  conquered  by 
Ctcsar." 

Obs.  3. — Most  active  verbs  may  be  used  either  transitively  or  intransitively. 
Active  verbs  are  transitive  when  there  is  any  person  or  thing  expressed  or 
clearly  implied,  upon  which  the  action  terminates;  when  they  do  not  govern 
euch  an  object,  they  arc  intransitive. 

Obs.  4. — Some  verbs  may  be  used  either  in  an  active  or  a  neuter  sense. 
In  the  sentence,  "Here  I  rest,"  rest  is  a  neuter  verb;  but  in  the  sentence, 
"  Here  I  rest  my  hopes,"  7'cst  is  an  active-transitive  verb,  and  governs  hopes. 

Obs.  5. — An  active-intransitive  verb,  followed  by  a  preposition  and  its  ob- 
ject, will  sometimes  admit  of  being  put  into  tlie  passive  form,  the  object  of 
the  prcDosition  being  assumed  for  the  nominative,  and  the  preposition  being 
retained  with  tlie  verb,  as  an  adverb :  as,  {Active,)  "  They  laughed  at  him." 
r— {Passive,)  "  ilo  was  laughed  at." 

MODIFICATIONS. 

Yerbs  have  modifications  of  four  kinds ;  namely,  Moods^ 
Tenses,  Persons,  and  Numbers. 

MOODS. 

Moods  are  different  forms  of  the  verb,  each  of  which 


CHAP.  VI.]  ETYMOLOGY.— VERBS.— MOODS.  69 

expresses  the  being,  action,  or  passion,  in  some  particular 
manner. 

There  are  five  moods;  the  Infinitive,  the  Indicative, 
the  Potential,  the  Subjunctive^  and  the  Imperative. 

The  Infinitive  mood  is  that  form  of  the  verb,  which 
expresses  the  being,  action,  or  passion,  in  an  unlimited 
manner,  and  without  person  or  number :  as,  To  read,  to 
speak. 

The  Indicative  mood  is  that  form  of  the  verb,  which 
simply  indicates,  or  declares  a  thing:  as,  1  write;  you 
know:  or  asks  a  question;  as,  Bo  you  hnoivf 

The  Potential  mood  is  that  form  of  the  verb,  which  ex- 
presses the  power,  liberty,  possibility,  or  necessity,  of  the 
being,  action,  or  passion:  as,  I  can  read;  we  must  go. 

The  Salijanctive  mood  is  that  form  of  the  verb,  which 
represents  the  bemg,  action,  or  passion,  as  conditional, 
doubtfid,  and  contingent:  as,  "If  thou  </:',  see  that  thou 
offend  not." 

The  Imperative  mood  is  that  form  of  the  verb,  which 
is  used  in  commandmg,  exhorting,  entreating,  or  per- 
mittmg:  as,  ^'•Depart  thou." — '■'•Be  comfortedr — '■'■Forgive 
me." — ^'■Go  in  jjeace." 

Obs.  1. — The  injiruti've  inood  is  distinguished  by  the  preposition  to,  which, 
with  a  lew  exceptions,  immediately  precedes  il.  la  djotiomines,  to  is  gen- 
erally prelixed  to  verbs,  to  distinguisii  tliein  IVoiu  other  parts  ol  speech.  A 
verb  in  any  other  mood  than  tho  injinihve,  is  called,  by  way  of  distinction, 
&  finite  verb. 

Obs.  2. — The  potential  mood  is  known  by  the  sif^'us  maij,  can,  must,  miglit. 
could,  would,  and  sJiO-uld.  Tliis  mood  as  well  as  the  indicative  may  be  usad 
in  asking  a  questio  i;  as.  Must  we  go? 

Obs.  3. — Tbe  subjunctioe  mood  is  always  connected  witb  an  other  verb. 
Its  dependence  is  usually  denoted  by  a  conjunction';  as,  i/',  tJutt,  tlwugJi,  lest, 
unless. 

Obs.  4.— The  indicative  and  potential  moods,  in  all  their  tenses,  may  bo 
used  in  the  same  dependent  manner  ;  but  this  seems  not  to  be  a  sufficient 
reason  for  considering  them  as  parts  of  the  subjunctive  mood.* 

*  In  regard  to  the  number  and  form  of  the  tenses  which  should  constltntc  the  sub- 
junctive mood  in  English,  gi-aminanansare  greatly  at  variance ;  and  some,  supposing  ita 
distinctive  parts  to  be  but^elliptical  forms  of  the  indicative  or  the  potential,  even  deny 
the  existence  of  such  a  mood  altogether.  Ou  this  point,  the  Instructions  published  by 
Lindley  Murray  are  exceedingly  vague  and  inconsistent.  The  early  editions  of  liis 
Grammar  gave  to  this  mood  svn  tenses,  none  of  wliich  liad  any  of  the  personal  intiec- 
tions;  consequently  there  was,  in  all  the  tenses,  some  difference  between  it  and  tlie 
indicative,  liis  later  editions  make  the  subjunctive  exactly  like  the  indicative,  except 
in  the  present  tense,  and  in  the  choice  of  auxiliaries  for  the  second-future.  Both  ways 
he  goes  too  far.  And  while  at  last  he  restricts  tlie  distinctive  form  of  the  subjunctive 
to  narrower  bounds  tliau  he  ought,  and  argues  against,  If  tliou  loved.  If  thou  k7iew, 
&c.,  he  gives  this  mood  not  only  tlie  last  live  tenses  of  the  indicative,  but  also  all  those 
of  the  potential ;  alleging,  "  tliat  as  tlie  indicative  mood  is  converted  into  the  suiijunc- 
live,  by  the  expression  of  a  condition,  motive,  wish,  supposition,  &c.  being  superadded 
to  it,  80  the  potential  mood  may,  in  like  manner,  be  turned  into  the  subjunctive."-^ 
Mur,  Gram,,  Oct.,  p.  83,    According  to  this,tho  subjunctive  mood  of  every  legulut 


70  ESrSTITUTES   OF   ENGLISH   GRAMMAR.      [PART  II 

TENSES. 

Tenses  are  those  modifications  of  the  verb,  wliicTi  disi 
tinguisli  time. 

There  are  six  tenses;  the  Present,  the  Imperfect,  tha 
Perfect,  the  Phijperfect,  the  First-future,  and  the'  Second' 
future. 

The  Present  tense  is  that  which  expresses  what  now 
exists,  or  is  taking  place :  as,  ''I  hear  a  noise ;  somebody 
is  coming.'''' 

The  Imperfect  tense  is  that  which  expresses  what  tooh 
place,  or  loas  occurring,  in  time  fully  past:  as,  "I  savj 
him  yesterday ;  he  was  walking  out." 

The  Perfect  tense  is  that  which  expresses  what  has 
taken  place,  within  some  period  of  time  not  yet  fully  past : 
as,  "I  have  seen  him  to-day." 

The  Pluperfect  tense  is  that  which  expresses  what  had 
taken  place,  at  some  past  time  mentioned :  as,  "  I  had 
seen  him,  when  I  met  you." 

The  Firstfuture  tense  is  that  which  expresses  what 
will  take  place  hereafter :  as,  "  I  sliall  see  him  again." 

The  Second-future  tense  is  that  which  expresses  what 
will  have  taken  place,  at  some  future  time  mentioned :  as, 
"  I  shall  have  seen  him  by  to-morrow  noon." 

Osa.  1. — The  terms  here  defined  are  the  names  usually  given  to  those  parts 
of  the  verb  to  which  they  are  in  this  work  applied ;  and  tliough  some  of 
them  are  not  so  strictly  appropriate  as  scientific  names  ought  to  be,  we  think 
it  inexpedient  to  change  them. 

Obs.  2. — The  tenses  do  not  all  express  time  with  equal  precision.  Thoso 
of  the  indicative  mood,  are  the  most  definite.  The  time  expressed  by  the 
same  tenses  (or  what  aro  called  by  tlie  same  names)  in  the  other  moods,  ia 
frequently  relative,  and  sometimes  indefinite. 

Obs.  3. — The  present  tense,  in  the  indicative  mood,  expresses  general 
truths,  and  customary  actions;  as,  ^'■NIqq  ^produces  misery." — "She  often 

verb  embraces,  ia  one  voice,  as  many  as  one  hundred  and  thirty  eight  different  expres- 
sions; and  it  may  happen  that  in  one  single  tense  a  verb  shall  have  no  fewer  than 
fifteen  different  forms  in  each  person  and  number.  Six  times  fifteen  are  ninety;  and 
so  many  are  the  several  phrases  wliicli  now  compose  Murray^s  pluperfect  tense  of  the 
subjunctive  mood  of  the  verb  to  stroia—a,  tense  which  most  grammarians  very  prop- 
erly reject  as  needless!  But  this  is  not  all.  Tlie  scheme  not  oidy  confounds  the 
moods,  and  overwhelms  the  learner  with  its  multiplicity,  but  condemns  as  bad  Englisli 
what  the  author  himself  once  adopted  as  tlie  imperfect  subjunctive,  "If  thou  laved,^' 
&c.,  wherein  lie  was  sustained  by  Dr.  Priestly  and  others  of  high  authority.  Dr  John- 
son, indeed,  made  the  preterit  subjunctive  like  the  indicative;  and  this  may  have  m- 
duced  the  author  to  change  his  plan,  and  intlect  this  part  of  the  verb  with  at.  But  Dr. 
Alexander  Murray  very  positively  declares  this  to  bo  wrong:  "  When  such  words  as 
if,  though,  unless,  exevept,  whether,  and  the  like,  are  used  before  verbi,  they  lose  their 
terminations  of  est,  eih,  and  s,  in  those  persons  which  commonly  have  them.  No 
speaker  of  good  Knglish,  expressing  himself  conditionally,  savs,  Though  thou  fullest, 
or  Though  he  /alls,  but.  Though  tliou  fcJl,  and  Though  he  'f(tU ;  not  Though  thog 
eaw«6'i,  but  Tliough,  or  although,  tliou  cuiiie,"—/fist,  Europ,  Lang.,  Vol.  i.  p.  b'o. 


CHAP.  VI.]       ETYMOLOGY.— VERBS.— PER.  AND  NUM.       71 

visits  us."  "VVe  also  use  it  in  speaking;  of  perBons  who  are  dead,  but  whose 
"woriis  remain  ;  as,  "  Souoca  rm.wHS  well." 

Obs.  4. — The  present  tense  in  the  subjunctive  mood,  nnd  in  the  other 
moods  when  preceded  by  as  soon  as,  after,  before,  till,  or  ichen,  is  generally 
used  with  reference  to  future  time ;  as,  "  If  he  ask  a  fish,  will  he  give  him  a 
Borpent  ?"— J/a«.,  vi,  10.-   "  When  he  arrives,  1  will  send  for  you." 

Obs.  5.— In  animated  narrative,  the  present  tense  is  sometimes  substituted 
(by  the  figure  enallage)  for  the  imperfect;  as,  "  As  he  lay  indulging  himself 
in  state,  he  sees  let  down  from  the  ceihng  a  glittering  sword,  hung  by  a  smgla 
hair."— Tr.  of  Cicero.     "  Ulysses  wales,  not  knowing  where  he  was."— Po^«. 

Obs.  6.— The  present  infinitive  can  scarcely  be  said  to  express  any  partic- 
ular time.  It  is  usually  dependent  on  an  other  verb,  and,  therefore,  relative 
in  time.  It  may  be  connected  with  any  tense  of  any  mood  ;  as,  "I  intend 
to  do  it,  1  intended  to  do  it,  I  have  intended  to  do  it;"  &c.  It  is  often  used 
to  express  futurity  ;  as,  "  The  time  to  come:''—"-  The  world  to  come:'—'-'-  Rap- 
ture yet  to  he:'' 

Obs.  7.— The  imperfect  tense  of  the  indicative  mood,  in  its  simple  form,  is 
called  the  preterit ;  as,  loved,  saw,  teas. 

Obs.  8.— The  perfect  tense,  like  the  present,  is  sometimes  used  with  refer- 
ence to  future  time ;  as,  "  He  will  be  tatigued  before  he  has  imlked  a  mile." 

Obs.  9.— The  pluperfect  tense  is  often  used  conditionally,  without  a  coa- 
juuction  ;  as,  "  Had  1  tieen  you,  I  should  have  stopped." 

PERSONS   AND   NUMBERS. 

The  person  and  number  of  a  verb,  are  those  modifica- 
tions in  which  it  agrees  with  its  subject  or  nominative. 

In  each  number,  there  are  three  persons ;  and  in  each 
person,  two  numbers  :  thus, 

Singular.  Plural. 

1st  per.  I  love,  1st  per.  "We     love, 

2d  per.  Thou  lovest,  2d  per.  You    love, 

3d  per.  He      loves ;  3d  per.  They  love. 

Obs.  1.— Thus  the  verb  in  some  of  its  parts,  varies  its  termination  to  dis- 
tinguish, or  agree  with,  the  different  persons  and  numbers.  The  change  is, 
liowever,  principally  confined  to  the  second  and  third  persons  singuk-r  of 
the  present  tense  of  tlie  indicative  mood,  and  to  the  auxiliaries  hast  and  has 
of  the  perfect.  In  the  ancient  biblical  stylo,  now  used  only  on  solemn  oc- 
casions, the  second  person  singular  is  distinguished  through  all  the  tenses 
of  the  indicative  and  potential  moods.  And  as  the  use  of  the  pronoun  thou, 
is  now  mostly  confined  to  the  solemn  style,  t^e  terminations  oT  that  style 
are  retained  in  all  our  examples  of  the  conjugation  of  verbs.  In  the  plural 
number,  there  is  no  variation  of  ending,  to  denote  the  different  persons ;  and 
the  verb  in  the  three  persons  plural,  is  the  same  as  in  the  first  person  sin- 
gular. As  the  verb  is  always  attended  by  a  noun  or  a  pronoun,  expressing 
the  subject  of  the  affirmation,  no  ambiguity  arises  frmn  the  want  of  particular 
terminations  in  the  verb  to  distinguish  the  different  persons  and  numbers. 

Obs.  2.~Persons  in  high  stations,  being  usually  surrounded  by  attendants^ 
it  became,  many  centuries  ago,  a  species  of  court  flattery,  to  address  indi- 
viduals of  this  class,  in  the  plural  number.  And  the  practice  extended,  ii? 
time,  to  all  ranks  of  society :  so  that,  at  present  the  customary  mode  of 
fomiliar  as  well  as  complimentary  address,  is  altogether  plural ;  both  the 
verb  and  the  pronoun  being  used  'in  that  form.  This  practice,  which  con- 
founds one  of  the  most  important  distinctions  of  the  language,  aflfords  a 
Striking  instance  of  the  power  of  fashion.    The  society  of  Friends,  or  Quakers, 


72  INSTITUTES  OF  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.      [PART  II. 

however,  continne  to  employ  the  singular  number  in  familiar  diseourse ;  and 
custom,  winch  luia  now  destroyed  the  compliment  of  tlie  plural,  has  placed 
the  appropriate  form,  (at  least  as  regards  them,)  on  an  equality  with  tho 
plural  m  point  of  respect.  The  singular  is  universally  employed  in  reference 
to  the  Supreme  Benig  ;  and  is  generally  preferred  m  poetry.  It  is  the  lan- 
guage ol"  Scripture,  and  is  consistently  retained  in  all  our  grammars. 

Ob3.  S. — As  most  of  the  peculiar  terminations  by  which  tiie  second  person 
singular  of  verbs  is  property  distinguished  In  the  soleiim  style,  are  not  only 
difficult  of  utterance,  but  are  quaint  and  formal  in  conver.-<ation ;  the  preterits 
and  auxiliaries  ai'e  seldom  varied  in  familiar  discourse,  and  the  present  is 
generally  simplified  by  contraction.  A  distinction  between  the  solemn  and 
the  familiar  style,  has  long  been  admitted,  in  the  pronunciation  of  the  term- 
ination ed,  and  in  the  ending  of  the  verb  in  the  third  person  singular ;  and 
it  is  evidently  according  to  good  taste  and  the  best  usage,  to  admit  such  a 
distinction  in  the  second  person  singular.  In  the  familiar  use  of  the  second 
person  singular,  tlie  verb  is  usually  varied  only  in  the  present  tense  of  the 
indicative  mood,  and  in  the  auxiliary  hast  of  the  perfect.  This  method  of 
varying  the  verb  renders  the  second  person  singular  analogous  to  the  third, 
and  accords  with  tho  practice  of  the  most  intelligent  of  those  who  retain  tlKS 
common  use  of  this  distinctive  and  consistent  inode  of  address.  It  disen- 
cumbers their  familiar  dialect  of  a  multitude  of  harsh  and  useleSfS  termina- 
tions, which  serve  only,  when  uttered,  to  give  an  uncouth  prominency  to 
words  not  often  emphatic ;  and,  without  impairing  the  strength  or  perspicu- 
ity of  the  language,  increases  its  harmony,  and  reduces  the  form  of  the  verb 
in  the  second  person  singular  nearly  to  the  same  simplicity  as  in  the  other 
jiersons  and  numbers.* 

*  The  writings  of  the  Friends  bein;;  mostly  of  a  grave  cast,  afford  but  few  examples 
of  their  customary  mode  of  fonniiig  the  verb  ill  eomieclioii  witli  tlie  pronoun  thou,  in 
familiar  discourse.  Tlie  followinir  may  serve  to  illustrate  it :  '"To  devote  all  thou  hiid 
to  his  service;"— "If  thou  should  come;"— "What  thou  said ;'' — "Thou  kindly  con- 
iributed ;'''' — "The  Epistle  which  thou  sent  me;"— "Thou  would  perhaps  <(ito2«;" — 
"If  thou  submitted;" — "Since  thou  left;" — ^•Should  thou  act;" — "Thou  may  bo 
ready;"— "That  thou  luidmet;" — "That  thou  had  intimated ;"—'■•  Before  thou  puts''' 
[putst];  — "  What  thou  meets"  [meetst]; — "If  thou /«((i  made ;"—'-\  observed  thou 
was;" — "That  thou  might  put  tliy  trust;"-  "Thou  had  been  at  my  house." — J.  Ken- 
DAi.i,.  "  Thou  may  be  piandered  ;"—"■  That  thou  may  feel ;" —  "  Though  thou  waited 
lonu;,  and  sought  iiini;"— "  I  hope  thou  u-ill  bear  u\y  style;" — "Thou  also  knows" 
[kuow^t]:— "Thou  grew  up;"— "I  wish  than  would  yet  take  my  counsel." — S.  Crisp. 
"Thou  manifested  thy  tender  regard,  stretclied  forth  thy  delivering  hand,  AnA/ed 
and  sustained  us  " — S.  Fotiiekgill.  The  writer  lias  met  with  thousands  that  use  tho 
second  person  singular  iu  conversation,  but  never  with  one  that  employed,  on  ordi- 
nary occasions,  all  the  regular  endings  of  the  solemn  style.  The  simplilication  of  tho 
second  person  singular,  which,  to  a  greater  or  less  extent,  is  everywliere  .adopted  by 
the  Friends,  and  which  is  here  dctined  and  explained,  removes  from  each  verb  eight- 
een of  these  peculiar  terminations ;  and,  (if  the  number  of  English  verbs  be,  as  stated 
by  several  grammarians,  SOdO,)  disburdi  ns  their  familiar  dialect  of  144,(!00  of  these 
awkward  and  useless  appendages.  This  simplification  is  supported  by  n&ase  as  exten- 
sive as  the  familiar  use  of  the  pronoun  thou  ;  and  is  also  in  aoeoidance  with  tho  can- 
ons of  criticism.  "All  words  and  jdirases  which  are  rumarkably  harsh  and  unhar- 
nionious,  and  not  absolulelj'  nec»sary,  should  be  rejected." — Camplicil  s  I'hilosophij 
of  Rhetoric.  B.  II,  Chap,  ii.  Sec.  2,  Canon  Sio'th.  With  the  subject  of  lliis  note, 
those  who  put  you  for  thou,  can  h'avu  no  concern ;  and  many  may  think  it  un  worthy 
of  notice,  because  Murray  \\a.i  said  nothing  about  it.  We  wriie  not  for  or  against 
any  sect,  or  any  man ,  but  to  teach  all  who  desire  to  know  the  grammar  of  our  tongue. 
And  who  is  he  that  will  pretend  that  the  solemn  style  of  the  Bible  may  bo  used  in  f:i- 
itiiliar  discourse,  witliout  a  mouthing  aflectation  ?  In  preaching,  the  ancient  termi- 
nations of  est  for  the  second  person  singular  and  eth  for  the  third,  as  well  as  ed  pro- 
nounced as  a  separate  syllable  for  the  preterit,  are  admitted  to  be  in  better  taste  than 
the  smoother  forms  of  the  familiar  style ;  because  the  latter,  though  now  frequently 
heard  in  religious  assemblies,  are  not  so  well  suited  to  the  dignity  and  gravity  of  a 
so;  mon  or  a  prayer.  In  grave  poetry  also,  especially  when  it  treats  of  scriptural  sub- 
jects, to  which  you  put  for  thou  is  obviously  unsuitable,  the  personal  terminations  of 
1  he  verb,  which  fiom  the  earliest  times  to  the  present  day  ')ave  usually  been  contracted 
and  oftsii  omitted  by  the  poets,  ought  perhaps  still  to  be  insisted  on,  agreeably  to  tho 
iiolion  of  our  tuneless  critics.  The  critical  objection  to  their  ellision,  however,  can 
Lave  uo  very  firm  foundation  while  it  is  admitted  by  the  objectors  thems«lvesj  that, 


CHAT,  n.']       ETYMOLOGY.— VERBS.— PER.  AND  NUM.       73 

Where  the  A'crb  is  varied,  the  second  person  singular  is 

fegularly  formed  by  adding  5/  or  est  to  the  first  person;  and 

the  third  person  singular,  in  like  manner,  by  adding  s  or  es: 

as,  I  sec,  thou  seest,  he  sees  ;  I  (/Ive,  thou  givest,  he  gives  ;  I  go, 

thou  goest,  he  goes ;  I  Jltj,  thou  Jliest,   he  Jlies ;  I  vex,  thou 

vexest,  he  vexes ;  I  fose,  thou  losest,  he  /oses. 

Oc3.  1.— In  the  solemn  style,  (except  in  Toetry,  whicli  usually  contracts* 
these  forms.)  llic  second  person  singular  of  the  present  indicative,  and  that 
of  the  irregular  pretcrits,t  commonly  end  in  est,  pronounced  as  a  separate 

"  Writers  generally  have  recourse  to  this  mode  of  expression,  ihut  ihey  may  avoid 
harsh  terminations.'"--Irvin(fs  El.  Eng.  Composition,  p.  12.  Dut  if  writers  of  good 
autlioiity,  such  as  Topo,  Swift,  and  Tollok,  liavo  sonictimos  had  recourso  to  this 
liifthod  of  siinpIiiyinK  the  verb  even  in  the  solemn  style,  the  elision  may,  with  tcn- 
Ibld  stronfrer  reason,  be  admitted  in  familiar  writing  or  discourse,  on  the  auUiority  of 
general  custom  among  those  who  choose  to  employ  the  pronoun  ihoti  in  conversation. 

Some  of  the  Friends  \'[)cx\\a\)i  from  an  idea  that  it  is  less  formal)  misemploy  ^/t«a 
for  thou,  and  often  join  it  to  the  third  person  of  the  verb  in  stead  of  the  second.  Such 
expressions  as,  thee  does,  iheo  is,  thee  hus,  thee  thi7iKs,  &c.,  arc  double  solecisms r  they 
set  a'.l  grammar  at  defiance.  Many  persons  who  are  not  ignorant  of  grammar,  and 
vlio  employ  the  pronoun  aright,  sometimes  improperly  saciifice  concord  to  a  slight 
improvement  in  .sound,  and  givo  to  the  verb  t  0  ending  of  the  third  person,  for  that 
of  the  second.  Three  instances  of  this  occur  in  the  examples  quoted  in  the  preceding 
paragraph.  See  also  the  following,  and  many  more,  in  the  works  of  tha  poet  Burns ; 
who  "says  of  himself,  "Though  itcost  the  schoolmaster  some  thrashinrrs,  I  made  an  cx- 
cellentEnclish  scholar;  and,  by  the  time  1  was  ten  or  eleven  years  of  age,  I  was  a 
critic  in  substantives,  rcr^.s,  and  particles:'' — "But  v.- lien  thou /iow/-*  ,•'"—" There Ihou 
shines  chief; '—"Thou  clears  the  head,"— "Thou  stri»f/s  the  nerves;"'— "Thou 
brightens  bhack  despair,"— "Thou  C3>ne,9,-"— "Thou  travels  far;"— "Thou  paints;''' 
"  Unseen  thou  lurks,"— ''O  thou  pale  orb  that  silent  shines:''  This  mode  of  simplify- 
ing the  verb  confounds  the  persons,  and  as  it  has  little  advantage  in  sound,  over  Iho 
Tttgular  contracted  form  of  the  second  person,  it  ought  to  bo  avoided.  It  is  too  fre- 
quently used  b)'  the  poets.  "* 

♦  The  second  per.sou  singular  may  bo  contracted,  whenever  the  verb  ends  in  a 
sound  which  will  unite  Willi  that  of  ",'i^.  The  poets  generally  employ  the  contracted 
forms,  but  they  seem  not  to  have  adopted  a  uniform  and  consistent  method  of  writing 
them.  Some  insert  the  apostrophe,  and,  after  a  .'■ingle  vowel,  double  the  final  conson- 
. ant  before  «<;  &=•,  hold'st,  bidd'st,  said'st,  ledd'st,  inay'st,  might'st,  Ac:  others  add 
St  only,  and  form  permanent  contractions;  a>,  holdst,  hidst,  saidst,  ledst,  mayst^ 
tnigJttst,  &.C  Some  retain  the  vowel  in  the  terminalion  of  certain  words,  and  sup-r 
press  a  preceding  one;  as,  Quick'iiest,  7Mpj)'neM,  scatt'rest,  slumV rest,  sluml'redst: 
others  contract  the  termination  of  such  words,  and  insert  the  apostrophe;  as,  (juicl;- 
C7ist,  liappetist,  scatter'st,  slumher'st,  sluinier'dst.  The  rature  of  our  language,  Iho' 
accent  and  pronunciation  of  it,  incline  ns  to  contracteven  all  our  regular  verbs;  so  as 
to  avoid,  if  possible,  an  increase  of  sjllablcs  i:i  the  inllection  of  them.  Accordingly, 
several  terminations  which  formerly  constituted  disUnet  syllables,  have  been  either 
■^\-holly  droppe(l,  or  blended  with  tin  filial  syllables  of  flio  verbs  to  which  they  aro 
added.  Tlius  the  plural  teimination  <•J^lla9  liecomo  entirely  obsolete  ;  th  or  eth  is  no 
longer  In  common  use;  ed  is  contracted  in  pronunciation  ;  the  ancient  ys  or  is,  of  the 
third  person  sinsular,  is  changed  to  s  or  es,  and  is  usually  added  without  increase  of 
syllables:  and  st  or  <>,$•«  has,  if>  part,  adopted  t.-c  analogy.  So  that  the  proper  moda 
of  forming  these  contractions  of  the  second  person  singular,  seems  to  be,  to  add  «t 
only,  and  to  insert  the  apostrophe,  whei>  a  vowel  is  suppressed  from  the  verb  to  which 
this  termination  is  added ;  as,  thinUst^  eaysi,  hidst,  lov'st,  loo  dsi,  slumberst,  slum- 
her'dyt. 

t  Some  grammarians  fay,  that,  whenever  the  preterit  Is  like  the  present,  it  should 
take  edsi  for  Ihe  second  person  sinaular.  This  rule  gives  as  such  words  as  cast^edsf, 
cost-edst,  htd-dedxt,  burkt-^edst,  cnl-tedst,  liit-tedst,  UMfdst,  ptit,tedst,  htirt-.edst,  rid-' 
d-edst,  shed-dedst,  itc,  The  few  examples  which  may  bo  adduced  from  ancient  writ- 
ings, ia  suppor  of  this  rule,  are  undoubtedly  formed  in  Uio  usual  manner  from  regular 
preterits  now  obsolefe,  and  if  this  were  not  the  ca-se,  no  person  of  taste  could  think 
of  employing  derivatives  so  uncoulh.  Dr.  John.=on  lias  justly  remarked,  that  "Iho 
chief  defect  of  our  lanenage  U  ruggeilnessand  asperity."  And  ihisdefect  i-i  peculiarly 
obvious,  when  even  llio  regular  termiii.ation  of  the  second  person  singular  is  added  tQ 
^ur  preterits.  Aeeor<iiiislv  we  find  numerous  instances  among  Ihe  poet.s,  both  ancient 
and  mod,-rn,  in  which  that  termiuation  is  omitted.— [See  Percy's  Bdiquea  of  Anci&nt 
J'oetny  everywhere. 


74  INSTITUTES  OF  ENGLISH  GRAMMAE.      [PART  II. 

syllable.  But  as  the  termination  ed^  in  solemn  diaconrse,  constitutes  a  syl* 
lable,  the  regular  preterits  form  the  second  person  singular,  by  adding  «<, 
•without  further  increase  of  syllables ;  as,  loved,  lovedstr— not,  lovedest.  Dost 
and  hast,  and  the  irregular  preterits  wast,  didst,  and  hadst,  are  permanently 
contracted.  The  auxiliaries  sliall  and  will,  change  the  final  I  to  t.  To  tho 
ausiliftries  «iay,  can,  might,  could,  would,  and  should,  the  termination  est  was 
formerly  added ;  but  they  are  now  generally  -written  with  st  only,  and  pro- 
nounced as  monosyllables,  even  in  solemn  discourse. 

Obs.  2. — The  third  person  singular  was  anciently  formed  by  adding  tli,  t* 
verbs  ending  in  e,  and  eth  to  all  others.  This  method  of  forming  the  third 
person  singular,  almost  always  adds  a  syllable  to  the  verb.  It  is  now  con- 
fined  to  the  solemn  style,  and  is  little  used.  JJoth,  hath,  and  saith,  are  con- 
tractions of  verbs  thus  formed. 

Obs.  3. — When  the  second  person  singular  is  employed  in  familiar  dis- 
course, it  is  iisually  formed  in  a  manner  strictly  analogous  to  that  which  is 
now  adopted  in  the  third  person  singular.  When  the  verb  ends  in  a  sound 
which  will  unite  with  that  of  st  or  s,  the  second  person  singular  is  formed 
by  adding  st  only,  and  the  third,  by  adding  s  only  ;  and  the  number  of  syl- 
lables is  not  increased :  as,  I  read,  thou  readst,  he  reads;  I  know,  thou  knoicst, 
he  knows ;  I  take,  thou  takest,  he  takes.  For  when  the  verb  ends  in  mute  e, 
no  termination  renders  this  e  vocal  in  tho  familiar  style,  if  a  synseresis  can 
take  place. 

Obs.  4. — But  when  the  verb  ends  m  a  sound  wliich  will  not  unite  with  that 
of  «<  or  s,  st  and  s  are  added  to  final  e,  and  est  and  es  to  other  terminations  ; 
and  the  verb  acquires  an  additional  syllable :  as,  I  trace,  thou  iracest,  ho 
traces  ;  Ipass,  thou  passest,  he  pjsses ;  I  fix,  thoii  Jixest,  h.(i  fixes.  But  verba 
ending  in  oor  y  preceded  by  a  consonant',  do  not  exactly  follow  this  rule  :  iu 
tliese,  y  is  changed  into  i  ;  and  to  both  o  and  i,  est  and  es  arc  added  without 
increase  of  syllables:  as,  I  go,  thou  goest,  he  goe'i ;  I  -undo,  thou  undoest,*  ho 
undoes  ;  \fly,  Vnow  fliest,  hejlies;  I  pity,  thou,  pitiest,  he  pities . 

Obs.  5. — The  formation  of  the  third  person  singular  of  verbs,  is  precisely 
the  same  as  that  of  the  plural  number  of  nouns. 

Obs.  6. — The  auxiliaries  do,  dost,  does,  [pronounced  doo,  dust,  diiz,] — am, 
art,  is, — hace,  hast,  has, — being  also  in  frequent  use  as  principal  verbs  of  tho 
present  tense,  retain  their  peculiar  form  when  jouied  to  other  verbs.  The 
other  auxiliaries  are  not  varied,  except  in  the  solemn  style. 

Obs.  7. — The  only  regular  terminations  that  are  added  to  verbs,  are  ing,  d 
or  ed,  st  or  est,  s  or  cs,  th  or  eth.  Ing,  and  Ih  or  eth,  always  add  a  syllable  to 
the  verb;  except  in  doth,  hath,  saith.  The  rest,  whenever  their  sound  will 
unite  with  that  of  the  final  syllable  of  the  verb,  are  added  without  increasing 
the  number  of  syllables ;  otherwise,  they  are  separately  pronounced.  In 
solemn  discourse,  however,  ed  and  est  are,  by  most  Kpeakers,  uttered  dis- 
tinctly iu  all  cases ,  except  sometimes,  when  a  vowel  precedes. 

CONJUGATION  OF  VERBS. 

The  conjugation  of  a  verb  is  a  regular  arrangement 
of  its  moods,  tenses,  persons,  numbers,  and  participles. 

Obs.— The  moods  and  tenses  are  formed  partly  by  inflections,  or  changes 
made  in  the  verb  itself,  and  partly  by  the  combination  of  the  verb  or  its  par- 
ticiple, with  a  few  short  verbs  called  auxiliaries,  or  helping  verbs. 

There  are  four  Principal  Parts  in  tlie  conjugation 
of  every  simple  and  complete  verb ;  namely,  the  Present, 
the  Preterit,  the  Imperfect  Participle,  and  the  Perfect  Par- 

*  The  second  person  sinsular  of  the  simple  verb  ilo.  is  now  usually  written  (}ost, 
and  read  dust;  beiiis  contracted  in  ortliosraphy,  as  well  as  pronunciation.  And  [lei- 
baps  the  coinpouiids  may  follow;  as,  Tliou  tiiidost,  ouidost^  misdost,  o-verdost,  &c. 
But  exceptions  to  exceptions  are  puzzling,  even  when  they  conform  to  tho  general 
rul«. 


CHAP.  VI.]     ETYMOLOGY.— VERBS.— CONJUGATION".  73 

ticiple.     A  verb  which  wantg  any  of  these  parts  is  called 
defective:  such  are  most  of  the  auxiliaries. 

Obs. — The  present  is  radically  tho  same  in  all  the  mooda,  and  is  the  part 
f.om  which  all  the  rest  are  formed.  The  present  infinitive  is  the  root,  or 
slmpledform^  of  the  verb.  Tlic  preterit  and  the  perfect  participle  arc  regu- 
larly Ibrined  by  adding  d  or  cd,  and  tho  imperfect  participle  by  adding  iiuj, 
to  the  present. 

An  auxiliary  is  a  short  verb  prefixed  to  one  of  tho 
principal  parts  of  an  other  verb,  to  express  some  particu- 
lar mode  and  time  of  the  being,  action,  or  passion.  The 
auxiliaries  are  do,  be,  have,  shall,  will,  may,  can,  and  must^ 
with  their  variations. 

Obs.  1. — Bo,  he,  and  have,  being  also  principal  verbs,  are  complete:  but 
the  participles  of  do  and  have,  are  not  used  as  auxiliaries  ;  unless  having, 
•whicli  forms  the  compound  jjarticiple,  may  be  considered  as  such.  Tha 
other  auxiliaries  have  no  participles. 

Obs.  2.— English  verbs  are  principally  conjugated  by  means  oi auxiliaries; 
the  only  tenses  which  can  be  formed  by  the  simple  verb,  being  the  present 
and  the  imperfect ;  as,  I  he.,  I  loved.  And  even  here  an  auxiliary  is  usually 
preferred  in  questions  and  neg.ations ;  as,  Bo  you  love  ?  You  do  not  love. 
AH  the  other  tenses,  even  in  their  simplest  form,  are  compounds. 

Obs.  3.— The  form  of  conjugating  the  active  verb  is  often  called  the  Activa 
Voice;  and  that  of  the  passive  verb,  the  Pas,*M'«  Voice.  These  terms  are 
borrowed  from  the  Latlii  and  Greek  grammars,  and  are  of  little  or  no  use  ia. 
.English. 

Obs.  4.— English  verbs  having  few  inflections,  it  is  convenient  to  insert  _ia 
the  conjusfations  the  preposition  io,  to  mark  the  infinitive ;  pronouns,  to  dis- 
tinguish the  persons  and  numbers;  the  conjunction  {/■,  to  denote  the  sub- 
junctive; and  the  adverb  not,  to  show  the  form  of  negation.  With  thesa 
ftdditions,  a  verb  may  be  conjugated  mfour  ways: 

1.  Affirmativelij;  as,  I  write,  1  do  write,  or  I  am  wntinrf. 

2.  Negatively;  as,  I  write  not,  I  do  not  write,  or,  I  «?>i  not  writing. 
8.  Interrogatively;  as.  Write  11  Bo\  write?  or.  Ami  %vriting? 

4.  Interrogatively  and  negatively;  as,  Write  I  not?  Bo  I  not  write?  or.  Am 
I  not  writing  ? 

I.   SIMPLE   FORM,  ACTIVE   OR  NEUTER. 

The  simplest  form  of  an  English  conjugation,  is  that 
which  makes  the  present  and  imperfect  tenses  without 
auxiliaries ;  but,  even  in  these,  auxiliaries  are  required 
for  the  potential  mood,  and  are  often  preferred  for  the 
indicative. 

FIRST  EXAMPLE. 

The  rerjidar  active  verb  LOVE,  conjugated  affirmatively. 
Principal  Parts. 
Present.         Preterit.      Imj^er.  Participle.      Perfect  Participle. 
Love.  Loved.  Loving.  Loved. 

INFINITIVE   MOOD. 

The  infinitive  mood  ia  that  form  of  the  verb,  which  expresses  the  being, 


76  INSTITUTES  OF  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR      [PART  IL 

rction,  or  passion,  in  nn  vinlimited  manner,  and  ■without  person  or  camber 
It  is  used  only  in  the  present  and  perfect  tenses. 

Present  Tense. 

This  tense  is  the  root,  or  radical  verb ;  and  is  usually  preceded  by  th« 
preposition  to,  which  shows  its  relation  to  some  other  word :  thus, — 

To  love. 

Perfect  Tense. 

This  tense  prefixes  the  auxiliary  Jiave  to  the  perfect  participle,  and  ia  usu- 
ally preceded  by  the  preposition  to :  thus, — 

To  have  loved. 

INDICATIVE    MOOD. 

The  indicative  mood  is  that  form  of  the  verb,  which  simply  indicatei  or 
declares  a  thing,  or  asks  a  question.     It  is  used  in  ail  the  tenses. 

Prese7it  Tense. 

The  present  indicative,  in  its  simple  form,  is  essentially  the  same  as  tho 
present  infinitive,  or  radical  verb  ;  except  that  tho  verb  be  has  am  in  the  in- 
dicative. 

1.  The  simple  form  of  the  present  tense  is  varied  thus: — 

Singular.  Plural. 

1st  per.  I         love,  1st  per.  We     love, 

2d  per.  Thou  lovest,  2d  per.  You    love, 

Sd  per.  He     loves ;  3d  per.  They  love. 

2.  This  tense  may  also  be  formed  by  prefixing  the  auxiliary 
do  to  the  verb  ;  thus, — 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I         do     love,  1.  We     do  love, 

2.  Thou  dost  love,  2.  You    do  love, 

0.  He     does  love ;  3.  They  do  love. 

Imperfect  Tense. 

This  tense,  in  its  simple  form,  is  the  preterit ;  which,  in  all  regular  verbs, 
adds  d  or  ed  to  the  present,  but  in  others  is  formed  variously. 

1.  The  simple  form  of  the  imperfect  tense  is  varied  thus:— 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  T         loved,  1.  We     loved, 

2.  Thou  lovedst,  2.  You    loved, 

3.  He     loved;  3.  They  loved. 

2.  This  tense  may  also  be  formed  by  prefixing  the  auxiliary 
did  to  the  present :  thus,— ^ 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I         did     love,  1.  We    did  love, 

2.  Thou  didst  love,  2.  You    did  love, 

3.  He     did     love ;  3.  They  did  lovia. 


CHAP.  VI.]      ETYMOLOGY.— VERBS.— CONJUGATION.  77 

Obs.— In  ft  flimiliar  question  or  negation,  tlip  nuxiliary  form  is  preferabl* 
to  tho  simple.  But  in  the  soletnii  or  the  poetic  style,  the  simple  form  is 
more  diffnilied  an. I  graceful:  a:»,  ^'^ Understandest  tbou  what  thou  readest?" 
—  "Of  whom  speahcth  the  prophet  i\\\?,V'—Acts,  viii,  30,  34.  "Say,  Acard 
ye  nought  of  lowiaud  war  ?" — SmU:  L.  of  L.,  C.  v,  ^  5. 

Perfect  Tense. 

Tliia  tense  prefixes  the  auxiliary  haoe  to  the  perfect  participle :  thus,— 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I         have  loved,  1.  Wo    have  loved, 

2.  Tliou  hast  loved,  2.  You   have  loved, 

3.  He     has     loved ;  3.  They  have  loved. 

Pluperfect  Tense. 
This  tense  prefixes  the  auxiliary  had  to  the  perfect  participle :  thus,— 
Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I         had     loved,  1.  We    had  loved, 

2.  Thou  hadst  loved,  2.  You   had  loved, 

3.  lie     had     loved ;  3.  They  had  loved. 

First-future  Tense. 
This  tense  prefixes  the  auxiliary  shall  or  will  to  the  present :  thus,— 

1.  Simply  to  express  a  future  action  or  event : — 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I         shall  love,  1.  We    shall  love, 

2.  Thou  wilt   love,  2.  You   will  love, 

3.  lie     will    love ;  3.  They  will   love. 

2.  To  express  a  promise,  volition,  command,  or  threat:— 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I          will   love,  1.  We    will    love, 

2.  Thou  shalt  love,  '                  2.  You    shall  love, 

3.  He     shall  love  ;  3.  They  shall  love. 

Ob3.— In  interrogative  sentences,  tho  meaning  of  these  auxiliaries  is  re- 
versed. Wheu  preceded  by  a  conjunction  implying  condition  or  uncertainty, 
their  import  is  somewhat  varied. 

Secondfuture  Tense. 

Tills  tense  prefixes  the  auxiliaries  shall  have  or  will  have  to  the  perfect  par- 
ticiple: thus, — 


Singular. 

Plural. 

1. 

I         shall  have  loved. 

1. 

We    shall  have  loved, 

2. 

Thou  wilt  have  loved, 

2. 

You    will    have  loved, 

3. 

He     will   have  loved ; 

3. 

They  will    have  loved. 

Obs. — The  auxiliary  ,?7ia^  may  also  be  used  in  the  second  and  third  persona 
of  this  tense,  when  preceded  by  a  conjunction  expressing  condition  or  con- 
tingency; as,  "If  he  shall  have  finished  his  work  wheii  I  return."  And 
perhaps  will  may  here  be  used  in  the  first  person  to  express  a  promise  or  a 
determination,  though  such  usage,  1  thinii,  very  seldom  occurs. 

7» 


78  INSTITUTES   OF  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.      [PART IL 

POTENTIAL    MOOD. 

The  potential  mood  is  that  form  of  the  verb,  -which  expresses  the  power, 
liberty,  possibility,  or  necessity,  of  the  being,  action,  or  passion.  It  is  used 
in  the  first  four  tenses ;  but  the  potential  imperfect  is  properly  nn  aorist,  and 
not  necessarily  a  past  tense.    No  definite  time  is  usually  implied  in  it. 

Present  Tense. 

This  tense  prefixes  the  auxiliary  may,  can,  or  must,  to  the  radical  verb : 
thus,— 

Smgular.  Plural. 

1.  I         may     love,  1.  We    may  love, 

2.  Thou  mayst  love,  2.  You    may  love, 

3.  He     may     love ;  3.  They  may  love. 

Imperfect  Tense. 

This  tense  prefixes  the  auxiliary  might,  eould,  would,  or  should,  to  the  rad- 
ical verb ;  thus, — 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  1         might     love,  1.  V/e    might  love, 

2.  Thou  mightst  love,  2.  You    might  love, 

3.  He     might     love ;  3.  They  might  love. 

Perfect  Tense. 

This  tense  prefixes  the  auxiliaries,  ma,y  have,  can  have,  or  must  have,  to  tho 
periiect  participle :  thus, — 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I         may     have  loved,  1.  We    may  have  loved, 

2.  Thou  mayst  have  loved,         2.  You   may  have  loved, 

3.  He     may     have  loved ;        3.  They  may  have  loved. 

Pluperfect  Tense. 

This  tense  prefixes  the  auxiliaries,  might  have,  could  have,  would  have,  or 
ehould  have,  to  the  perfect  participle :  thus, — 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  might     have  loved,  1.  We    might  have  loved, 

2.  Thou  mightst  have  loved,  2.  You    might  have  loved, 

3.  He     might    have  loved  ;  3.  They  might  have  loved. 

SUBJUNCTIVE   MOOD. 

The  subjunctivo  mood  is  that  form  of  the  verb,  which  represents  the  bein^, 
fiction,  or  passion,  as  conditional,  doubtful,  or  contingent.  This  mood  is 
generally  preceded  by  a  conjunction;  as,  if,  that,  though,  lest,  unless,  &e.  It 
does  not  vary  its  termination,  in  the  different  persons.  It  is  used  in  the 
present,  and  sometimes  in  tile  imperfect  tense ;  rarely  in  any  other.  As  this 
mood  can  be  used  only  in  a  dependent  clause,  the  time  implied  in  its  tenses 
is  always  relative,  and  generally  indefinite. 

Present  Tense. 

This  tense  is  gener.ally  used  to  express  some  condition  on  which  a  future 
action  or  evot  is  affirmed.  It  is  therefore  considered  by  some  grammariana, 
oa  an  ellipti.ci'i  ibrm  of  the  future. 


CHAP.  VI.J   ETYMOLOGY.— VERBS.— CONJUGATION.     79 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  If  I        love,  1,  Ifwc     love, 

.2.  If  thou  love,  2.  If  you  love, 

3.  If  he     love;  3.  If  they  love. 

Oes.— In  this  tense  the  auxiliary  do  is  sometimes  employed ;  as,  "  If  thon 
do  prosper  iny  way."— 6'e«,.,  xxiv,  42.  "  If  lie  do  not  utter  it:'— Lev.,  v,  1. 
This  uninflected  do  proves  the  tense  to  he  presttit  and  the  mood  subj urvctive ; 
for  the  word  will  come  under  no  other  mood  or  tense. 

Imperfect  Tense. 

This  tense,  as  well  as  the  imperfect  of  the  potential  mood,  with  whieh  it 
is  frequently  connected,  is  properly  an  aorist,  or  iudclinite  tense  ;  and  it  may 
refer  to  time  past,  present,  or  future :  as,  "  If  therefore  perfection  were  by 
the  Levitical  priesthood,  what  further  need  was  there,"  &e. — Eeb.,  vii,  11. 
"  If  the  whole  body  were  an  eye,  where  were  the  liearing  ?" — 1  Cor.,  xii,  17. 
"  If  it  were  possible,  they  shall  deceive  the  very  (AGcV—Matt.,  xxiv,  24. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  If  I        loved,  1.  If  we     loved, 

2.  If  thou  loved,  2.  If  you  loved, 

3.  If  he     loved;  3.  If  they  loved. 

IMPERATIVE   MOOD. 

The  imperative  mood  is  tliat  form  of  the  verb,  wliich  is  used  in  command- 
ing, exhorting,  entreating,  or  permitting.  It  is  commonly  used  only  in  tha 
eecond  person  of  the  present  tense. 

Present  Tense. 
Sirigular.  2.  Love  [thou,]  or  Do  thou  love  ; 

Plural.      2.  Love  [ye  or  you,]     or  Do  you  love. 

Obs.— In  the  G?-eek  language,  which  has  three  numbers,  the  imperative 
mood  is  used  in  the  second  and  tJd?'d  persons  of  them  all ;  and  has  also  sev- 
eral ditFerent  tenses,  some  of  which  cannot  be  clearly  rendered  in  English. 
In  Latin,  this  mood  lias  a  distinct  form  for  the  third  person  both  singular  and 
plural.  In  Italian,  Spanish,  and  French,  t\m  first  person  plural  is  also  given 
it.  Imitatwns  of  some  of  these  forms  are  occasionally  employed  in  English, 
particularly  by  the  poets.  Such  imitations  must  bo  referred  to  this  mood, 
unless  by  ellipsis  and  transposition  we  make  them  out  to  be  something  else. 
The  following  are  examples :  ^'■Blessed  be  he  that  blesseth  thee."— (Jen,.,  xxvii, 
29.     "  Thy  Icimjdom  come:''— Matt.,  vi,  10. 

'■^Fall  he  that  must,  beneath  his  rival's  arms. 
And  live  the  rest,  secure  of  future  harms." — Pope. 

"  My  soul,  torn  from  iham— turn  we  to  savvey,''^ &,q.— Goldsmith. 


1. 


SYNOPSIS  OP  THE   FIRST  EXAMPLE. 
First  Person  Singular. 
Ind.  I  love,  I  loved,  I  have  loved,  I  had  loved,  I  shall  love, 
I  shall  have  loved.     Pox.  I  may  love,  I  might  love,  I  may  hav© 
loved,  I  might  have  loved.     Subj.  If  I  love.  If  I  loved. 


.  PARTICIPLES. 

The  Imperfect. 
Loving. 

2.    The  Perfect. 
Loved. 

8.   The  Preperfect. 
Having  loved. 

so  INSTITUTES  OF  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR.      [PART  11. 

Second  Person  Singular. 
Ikd.  Thou  lovest,  Thou  lovedst,  Thou  hast  loved,  Thou 
hadst  loved,  Thou  wilt  love,  Thou  wilt  have  loved.  Pot. 
Thou  mayst  love,  Thou  mightst  love,  Thou  mayst  have  loved, 
Thou  mightst  have  loved.  Subj.  If  thou  love,  If  thou  loved. 
Imp.  Love  [thou,]  or  Do  thou  love. 

Third  Person  Singular. 

Ind.  He  loves,  He  loved,  He  has  loved.  He  had  loved.  Ho 
will  love,  He  will  have  loved.  Pot.  He  may  love.  He  might 
love,  He  may  have  loved,  He  might  have  loved.  Subj.  If  he 
love,  If  he  loved. 

First  Person  Plural. 

Ind.  "We  love,  We  loved.  We  have  loved,  We  had  loved, 
We  shall  love.  We  shall  have  loved.  Pot.  We  may  love, 
We  might  love,  We  may  have  loved,  We  might  have  loved. 
Subj.  If  we  love,  If  we  loved. 

Second  Person  Plural. 

Ind.  You  love,  You  loved.  You  have  loved.  You  had  loved, 
You  will  love,  You  will  have  loved.  Pot.  You  may  love, 
You  might  love.  You  may  have  loved.  You  might  have  loved. 
Subj.  If  you  love,  If  you  loved.  Imp.  Love  [ye  or  you,]  or 
Do  you  love. 

Third  Person  Plural. 

Ind.  They  love.  They  loved,  They  have  loved.  They  had 
loved,  They  will  love.  They  will  have  loved.  Pot.  They  may 
love,  They  might  love.  They  may  have  loved,  They  might  have 
loved.     Subj.  If  they  love.  If  they  loved. 

Obs. — In  the  familiar  style,  the  second  person  singular  of  this  verb,  is  usu- 
ally formed  thus :  Ind.  Thou  lov'st,  Thou  loved,  Tliou  hast  loved,  Tliou  had 
loved,  Thou  will  love,  Thou  will  have  loved.  Pot.  Thou  may  love,  Thou, 
might  love,  Thou  may  have  loved,  Thou  might  have  loved.  Suej.  If  thou 
lovG,  If  thou  loved.    Imp.  Love  [thou,]  or  Do  thou  love. 

SECOND  EXAMPLE. 

The  irrBjular  active  verb  SEE,  conjugated  affirmatively. 

Principal  Parts, 
i'resent.         Preterit,         Imp.  Participle.         Perf.  Participle. 
See.  Saw  Seeing.  Seen. 

INFINITIVE   MOOD. 

Present  Tense. 

To  see. 


CHAP.  YI.]      ETYMOLOGY.— VERBS.— CONJUGATION. 


81 


Perfect  Tense. 

To  have  seen. 

INDICATIVE 

MOOD. 

Present  Tense. 

Singular.    - 

PluraL 

1.  I         see, 

1.  "VVe    see, 

2.  Thou  seest, 

2.  You   see, 

3.  He     sees; 

3.  They  see. 

Imperfect  : 
Singular. 

Tense. 

Plural. 

1.  I          saw. 

1.  We    saw, 

2.  Thou  sawest, 

2.  You    saw, 

8.  He     saw; 

3,  They  saw. 

Perfect  Tense. 
Singular.                                       Plural. 

1.  I          have  seen. 

1.  We    have  seen. 

2.  Thou  hast  seen, 

2.  You    have  seen, 

3.  He     has    seen ; 

3.  They  have  seen. 

Pluperfect 
Singular. 

Tense. 

Plural. 

1.  I          had     seen, 

1.  We    had  seen, 

2.  Thou  hadst  seen. 

2.  You    had  seen. 

3.  He     had     seen; 

3.  They  had  seen. 

First-future 

Tense. 

Singular. 

Plural 

1.  I          shall  see, 

1.  We    shall  see, 

2.  Thou  wilt   see, 

2.  You   will  see, 

3.  He     will   see ; 

3.  They  will  see. 

1. 

2. 


Second-future  Tense. 
Singular.  Plural. 

I         shall  have  seen,  1.  We    shall  have  seen. 

Thou  wilt  have  seen,  2.  You    will    have  seen. 


3.  He     will    have  seen : 


3.  They  will   have  seen. 


POTENTIAL   MOOD. 
Present  Tense. 


Singular. 

1.  I         may     see, 

2.  Thou  mayst  see. 
He     may     see ; 


4» 


Plural. 

1.  We    may  see, 

2.  You   may  see, 

3.  They  may  see. 


82  INSTITUTES  OF  ENGLISH   CRAMMAR.      [PART  II. 

Imperfect  Tense. 
Singular,  Plural. 

1.  I         might     see,  1.  Yv''e    might  see, 

2.  Thou  mightst  sec,  2.  You    might  see, 

3.  He     might     see ;  3.  They  might  see. 

Perfect  Tense. 
Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I         may     have  seen,  1.  "We    may  have  seen, 

2.  Thou  mayst  have  seen,  2.  You    may  have  seen, 

3.  He     may     have  seen  ;  3.  They  may  have  seen. 

Pluperfect  Tense. 
Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I         might     have  seen,        1.  We    might  have  seen, 

2.  Thou  mightst  have  seen,         2.  You    might  have  seen, 

3.  ""  ~ 


[e 

might     have  seen ; 

3.  Th( 

jy  might  have 

SUBJUNCTIVE   MOOD. 

1. 
2. 
8. 

Singular. 

If  I         see. 
If  thou  see, 
If  he     see ; 

Present  Tense. 

Pural. 

1.  If  we     see, 

2.  If  you  see, 

3.  If  they  see. 

Singular. 

Imperfect 

Tense. 

Plural. 

1. 
2. 
3. 

If  I        saw. 
If  thou  saw, 
If  he      saw ; 

1. 
2. 
3. 

If  we    saw. 
If  you  saw. 
If  they  saw. 

IMPERATIVE   MOOD. 

Present  Tense. 

Singular.  2.  See  [thou,]  or  Do  thou  sec ; 

Plural.      2.  See  [ye  or  you,]  or  Do  you  see. 

PARTICIPLES. 

1.   Tlie  Imperfect.  2.   The  Perfect.  3.   The  Preperfect. 

Seeing.  Seen,  Having  seen. 

Obs.— In  the  familiar  style,  the  second  person  singular  of  this  verb,  is 
Bsually  formed  thus  :  Ind.  Thou  seest.  Thou  saw.  Thou  hast  seen.  Thou  had 
seen.  Thou  will  see.  Thou  will  have  seen.  Pot.  Thou  may  see.  Thou  might 
Bee,  Thou  may  have  seen,  Thou  might  have  seen.  Subj.  If  thou  see,  If  thou 
6aw.    latP.  See  [thoU,]  or  Do  thou  se'e. 


CHAP.  VI.]      ETYMOLOGY.— VERBS— CONJUGATION.  83 

TIIIRD  EXAMPLE. 

The  irregular  neuter  verb  BE,  conjugated  affirmatively. 

Principal  Parts. 
Present.         Preterit.         Imp.  Participle.         Perf.  Participle, 
Be.  Was.  Being,  Beeru 

INFINITIVE    MOOD. 

Present  Tense. 
To  be. 

Perfect  Tense. 
To  have  been. 

INDICATIVE   MOOD. 

Present  Tense. 

Obs. — Be  was  formerly  used  in  the  indicative  present:  ns,  "  We  he  twelve 
brethren."— (?e».,  xlii,  32.  "  Wliat  be  these  two  olive  branches?" — Zeck.i 
iv,  12.    Bui  this  construction  is  now  obsolete.  „ 


Singular. 

PluraL 

1.  I         am, 

1.  We    are, 

2.  Thou  art, 

2.  You   are, 

S.  He     is; 

3.  They  are. 

Imjjerfect 
Singular. 

Tense. 

Plural 

1.  I          was, 

1.  We    were, 

2.  Thou  wast,* 

2.  You   were. 

S.  He     was; 

S.  They  were. 

Perfect  Tense. 
Singular.                                      Plural. 

1. 

I         have  been. 

1.  We    have  been, 

2. 

Thou  hast  been, 

2.  You  have  been, 

3. 

He     has     been ; 

3.  They  have  been* 

Pluperfect 
Singular. 

Tense. 

Plural. 

1. 

I         had     been, 

1.  We    had  been. 

2. 

Thou  hadst  been. 

2.  You   had  been, 

3. 

He     had     been ; 

3.  They  had  been. 

*  Wert  is  sometimes  n?ed  Indicativelv  for  ^oast;  as, 
"  Vainly  wert  thou  wed.'"— ^ymn. 
"  Whate'ef  thou  art  or  werV—Id. 


84  INSTITUTES   OF  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.      [PAET II. 

First-future  Tense. 
Singular.  Plural. 

1.  1         shall  be,  1.  We    shall  be, 

2.  Thou  wilt  be,  2.  You   will    be, 

3.  lie     will   be;  3.  They  will   be. 

Second-future  Tense. 
Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  shall  have  been,  1.  We    shall  have  been, 

2.  Thou  wilt   have  been,  2.  You   will    have  been, 
S.  He     will   have  been  ;  3.  They  wiD   have  been. 

POTENTIAL   MOOD. 

Present  Tense. 
Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I         may     be,  1.  We    may  be, 

2.  Thou  mayst  be,  2.  You   may  be, 

3.  He     may     be ;  3.  They  may  be. 

Imperfect  Tense. 
Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  might     be,  1.  We    might  be, 

2.  Thou  mightst  be,  2.  You    might  be, 

3.  He     might     be ;  3.  They  might  be. 

Perfect  Tense. 
Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I         may     have  been,  1.  We    may  have  been, 

2.  Thou  mayst  have  been,  2.  You   may  have  been, 

3.  He     may     have  been  j  3.  They  may  have  been. 

Pluperfect  Tense. 
Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I         might     have  been,  1.  We    might  have  been, 

2.  Thou  mightst  have  been,  2.  You   might  have  been, 

3.  He     might     have  been ;  3.  They  might  have  been. 

SUBJUNCTIVE   MOOD. 

Present  Tense. 
Singular.  Plural. 

1.  If  I        be,  1.  If  we     bej 

2.  If  thou  be,  2.  If  you   be, 
8.  If  he     be ;  3.  If  they  be. 


CHAP.  VI.]      ETYMOLOGY.— VEKBS.— CONJUGATION.  85 


Imperfect  Tense. 
Singular. 

Plural. 

1. 

2. 
3. 

Ifl        were,                                    1. 
If  thou  wert,  or  were,                     2. 
If  he     were;                                 3. 

If  we     were, 
If  you   were. 
If  Ihey  were. 

IMPERATIVE   MOOD. 
Present  Tense. 

Singtilar.  2.  Be  [thou,]  or  Do  thou  be ; 

Plural.       2.  Be  [ye  or  you,]  or  Do  you   be. 

PARTICIPLES. 

1.   The  Imiyerfect.  2.   The  Perfect.  3.   The  Preperfect. 

Being.  Been.  Having  been. 

Obs. — In  tlie  familiar  style,  the  second  person  singular  of  this  verb  is  nsii- 
ally  formed  thus  :  Ind.  Thou  art,  Tliou  was,  Thou  hast  been,  Thou  had 
been.  Thou  will  be,  Thou  will  have  been.  Pot.  Thou  may  be,  Thou  might 
be,  Thou  inay  liave  been,  Thou  might  have  been.  Subj.  If  thou  be,  If  thou 
were.    Lup.  Be  [thou, J  ur  Do  thou  be. 

II.    COMPOUND   FORM,   ACTIVE   OR   NEUTER. 

Active  and  neuter  verbs  may  also  be  conjugated,  by 
adding  the  Imperfect  Participle  to  the  auxiliary  verb  be, 
through  all  its  changes ;  as,  I  am  loriting — He  is  sitting. 
This  form  of  the  verb  denotes  a  continuance*  of  the  ac- 
tion or  the  state  of  being,  and  is,  on  many  occasions, 
preferable  to  the  simple  form  of  the  verb. 

Obs.— Verbs  of  this  form  have  sometimes  a  passive  signification  ;  as,  "Tho 
books  are  now  selling y— Allen's  Gi-am.,  p.  Sl'.  "  II  requires  no  motion  in 
the  organs  whilst  it  is  forming.'''—  Murray's  Gram.,  p.  8.  "  While  the  work 
of  the  temple  was  carrying  on."— Z)r.  J.  Owen.  "  The  designs  of  Providence 
are  carrying  on.'"— Bp.  Butler.  "We  are  permitted  to  know  nothing  of 
what  IS  transacting  in  the  regions  above  \xs."—I)r.  Blair.  Expressions  of 
this  kind  are  condemned  by  some  critics ;  but  the  usage  is  unquestionably 
of  far  better  authoritv,  and  (accordmg  to  my  apprehension)  in  far  better 
taste,  than  the  nioie  complex  phraseology  which  some  late  writers  adopt  m 
ita  stead;  as,  "The  books  are  now  being  sold." 

FOURTH  EXAMPLE. 

27ie  irregular  active  verb  READ,  conjugated  affirmatively  in 
the  Compound  Form. 

Principal  Parts  of  the  Simple  Verb. 
Present.         Preterit.         Imp.  Participle.         Pcrf.  Participle. 
Read.  Read.  Reading.  Read.  ^ 

*  Those  verbs  which,  in  thefr  simple  form,  Imply  contlnnance,  do  not  admit  tln» 
eom^ucd  form  ■  thus  wo  say, ' ■  I  respect  him ;"  but  not,  "  I  am  renpecUni;  lihn." 

8 


66    .  INSTITUTES   OF   ENGLISH   GRAMMAR,        [PART  II. 

INFINITIVE   MOOD. 
Present  Tense. 
o  be  reading. 

Perfect  Tense. 
To  have  been  reading. 

INDICATIVE   MOOD. 

Present  Tense. 
Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I         am  reading,  1.  We    are  reading, 

2.  Thou  art  reading,  2.  You   are  reading, 

3.  He     is     reading ;  3.  They  are  reading. 

Imperfect  Tense. 
Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  Avas   reading,  1.  We    Avere  reading, 

2.  Thou  wast  reading,  2.  You    were  reading, 

3.  He     was   reading;  3.  They  were  reading. 

Perfect  Tense. 
Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I         have  been  reading,  1.  We    have  been  reading, 

2.  Thou  hast   been  reading,  2.  You   have  been  reading, 

3.  He     has     been  reading;  3,  They  have  been  reading. 

Pluperfect  Tense. 
Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  had     been  reading,  1.  We    had  been  reading, 

2.  Thou  hadst  been  reading,  2.  You    had  been  reading, 

3.  He     had     been  reading ;  3.  They  had  been  reading 

Firstfuture  Tense, 
Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I         shall  be  reading,  1.  We    shall  be  reading, 

2.  Thou  wilt   be  reading,  2.  You   will    be  reading, 

3.  He     will   be  reading ;  3.  They  will    be  reading. 

Secondfuture  Tense. 

Singular.   1.  I  shall  have  been  reading, 

2.  Thou  wilt  have  been  reading, 

3.  He     will    have  been  reading ; 

Plural.  1.  We  shall  have  been  reading, 
2.  You  will  have  been  reading, 
3    They  will   have  been  reading. 


CHAP.  VI.]      ETYMOLOGY.— VERBS.— CONJUGATION".  87 

POTENTIAL   MOOD. 
Present  Tense. 
Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I         may     be  reading,  1.  We    may  be  reading, 

2.  Thou  mayst  be  reading,  2.  You   may  be  reading, 

3.  He     may     be  reading ;  3.  They  may  be  reading. 

Imjierfect  Tense. 
Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I         might     be  reading,  1.  We    might  be  reading, 

2.  Thou  mightst  be  reading,  2.  You   might  be  reading, 

3.  He     might     be  reading ;  3.  Tiiey  might  be  readuig. 

Perfect  Tense. 
Singular.   I.  I  may     have  been  reading, 

2.  Thou  mayst  have  been  reading, 

3.  He     may      have  been  reading  ; 
Plural.       1.  We    may  have  been  reading, 

2.  You   may  have  been  reading, 

3.  They  may  have  been  reading. 

Pluperfect  Tense. 

Singular.   1.  I  might     have  been  reading, 

2.  Thou  mightst  have  been  reading, 

3.  He     might     have  been  reading ; 

Phiral.  1.  We  might  have  been  reading, 
2.  You  might  have  been  reading, 
8.  They  might  have  been  reading. 

SUBJUNCTIVE   MOOD. 

Present  Tense. 
Singular.  Phiral. 

1.  If  I        be  reading,  1,  If  we     be  reading, 

2.  If  thou  be  reading,  2.  If  you    be  reading, 

3.  If  he      be  reading  ;  3.  If  they  be  reading. 

Imperfect  Tense. 
.Singular.  Plural. 

1.  If  I        were  reading,  1.  If  we     were  reading, 

2.  If  thou  wert  reading,  2.  If  you   were  reading, 

3.  If  he     were  reading  ;  3.  If  they  were  reading. 

IMPERATIVE   MOOD. 

Present  Tense. 

Sing.  2.  Be      [thou]       reading,  or  Do  thou  be  reading; 
Plur.  2.  Be  [ye  or  you]  reading,  or  Do  you   be  leading. 


88  INSTITUTES  OF  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.      [PART  XL 

PARTICIPLES. 

1.   The  Imperfect.  2.   The  Perfect.        3.  The  Preperfect. 

Being  reading. Having  been  reading. 

Obs. — In  the  familiar  style,  the  second  person  singular  of  this  verb,  is 
nsually  formed  thus :  Ind.  Thou  art  reading,  Thou  was  reading,  Thou  liast 
been  reading.  Thou  had  been  reading,  Thou  will  be  reading.  Thou  will  havo  " 
been  reading.  Pot.  Thou  may  be  reading.  Thou  might  be  reading,  Thou 
may  have  been  reading,  Thou  might  have  been  reading.  Subj.  If  thou  be 
reading,  If  thou  were  reading.   Ywe.  Be  [thou]  reading,  w  Do  thou  be  reading. 

III.  FORM  OF  PASSIVE  VERBS. 
Passive  verbs,  in  English,  are  always  of  a  compound 
form ;  being  made  from  active-transitive  verbs,  by  add- 
ing the  Perfect  Participle  to  the  auxiliary  verb  be, 
through  all  its  changes :  thus,  from  the  active-transitive 
verb  love^  is  formed  the  passive  verb  he  loved. 

Ob3.  1.— a  few  actiTe-intransitivo  verbs,  that  merely  imply  motion,  or 
change  of  condition,  may  be  put  into  this  form,  with  a  neuter  signification ; 
making  not ^s«ie)e  but  newfer  verbs,  which  express  nothing  more  than  the 
Btate  which  results  from  the  change  :  as,  I  am,  come ;  He  is  risen ;  They  are 
fallen.  Our  ancient  writers,  after  the  manner  of  the  French,  very  frequently 
employed  this  mode  of  coniugation  in  a  neuter  sense  ;  but,  with  a  few  ex- 
ceptions, present  usage  is  clearly  in  favour  of  the  auxiliary  Aaw  in  preference 
to  he,  whenever  the  verb  formed  with  the  perfect  participle  is  not  passive ; 
ns.  They  have  arrived — not,  They  are  amved. 

Obs.  2.— Passive  verbs  may  be  distinguished  from  neuter  verbs  of  the  same 
form,  by  a  reference  to  the  agent  or  instrument ;  which  frequently  is,  and 
always  may  be,  expressed  after  passive  verbs  ;  but  which  never  is,  and  never 
can  be,  expressed  aftei  neuter  verbs :  as,  "  The  thief  has  been  caught  by  the 
officer.^'' — "  Pens  are  made  with  a  knife.'''' 

FIFTH  EXAMPLE. 
The  regular  passive  verb  BE  L  0  VED,  conjugated  affirmatively. 

Principal  Parts  of  the  Active  Verb. 

Present.         Preterit.      Imper.  Participle.     Perfect  Participle, 

Love.  Loved.  Loving.  Loved, 

INFINITIVE    MOOD. 

Present  Tense. 

To  be  loved. 

Perfect   Tense. 

To  have  been  loved. 

INDICATIVE   MOOD. 

Present  Tense. 

Singular.  Plural, 

1.  I         am  loved,  1.  We    are  loved, 

2.  Thou  art  loved,  2.  You   are  loved, 
S.  He     is    loved;  3.  They  are  loved. 


CHAP.  VI.]      ETYMOLOGY.— VERBS.— CONJUGATION.  89 

Imperfect  Tense. 
Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  -was    loved,  1.  We    av ere  loved, 

2.  Thou  wast  loved,  2.  You    were  loved, 

3.  He     was   loved ;  3.  They  were  loved. 

Perfect  Tense. 
Singular  Plural 

1.1  have  been  loved,  1.  We     have  been  loved, 

2.  Thou  hast  been  loved,  2.  You    have  been  loved, 

3.  lie     has    been  loved ;  3.  They  have  been  loved. 

Pluperfect  Tense. 
Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I         had     been  loved,  1.  We    had  been  loved, 

2.  Thou  hadst  been  loved,  2.  You    had  been  loved, 

3.  He     had     been  loved ;  3.  They  had  been  loved, 

Firstfuture  Tense. 
Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I         shall  be  loved,  1.  We    shall  be  loved, 

2.  Thou  wilt   be  loved,  2.  You   will   be  loved, 

3.  He     will   beloved;  3.  They  will   beloved. 

Secondfuture  Tense. 

Singular.  1.  I         shall  have  been  loved, 

2,  Thou  wilt    have  been  loved, 

3.  He     will    have  been  loved ; 

Plural.       1.  We    shall  have  been  loved, 

2.  You    will    have  been  loved, 

3.  They  Avill    have  been  loved. 

POTENTIAL   MOOD. 

Present  Tense. 
Singular.  Plural. 

1.  T         may     be  loved,  1.  We    may  be  loved, 

2.  Thou  mayst  be  loved,  2.  You    may  be  loved, 

3.  He     may     bo  loved  ;  3.  They  may  be  loved 

Imperfect  Tense. 
Singular.  Plural. 

\.  I  might     be  loved,  1.  We    might  be  loved, 

2.  Thou  mightst  be  loved,  2.  You    might  be  loved, 

3.  He     might     be  loved ;  3.  They  might  be  loved, 

8* 


90  INSTITUTES   OF  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR.      [PART  XL 

Perfect  Tense. 

Singular.   1.  I  may     have  been  loved, 

2.  Thou  mayst  have  been  loved, 

3.  He     may     have  been  loved ; 

Plural.       1.  We    may  have  been  loved, 

2.  You   may  have  been  loved, 

3.  They  may  have  been  loved. 

Phqjerfecl  Tense. 

Singular.  1.  I  might     have  been  loved, 

2,  Thou  mightst  have  been  loved, 

3,  He     might     have  been  loved ; 

Plural.       1.  We    might  have  been  loved, 

2.  You    might  have  been  loved, 

3.  They  might  have  been  loved. 

SUBJUNCTIVE   MOOD. 

Present  Tense. 
Singular.  Plural. 

1.  If  I        beloved,  1.  If  we     beloved, 

2.  If  thou  be  loved,  2.  If  you  be  loved, 

3.  If  he     be  loved  ;  3.  If  they  be  loved. 

Imperfect  Tense. 
Singular.  Plural. 

1.  If  I        were  loved,  1.  If  "we     were  loved, 

2.  If  thou  wert  loved,  2.  If  you  were  loved, 

3.  If  he     were  loved ;  3.  If  they  were  loved. 

IMPERATIVE    MOOD, 

Present  Tense. 

Singular.  2,  Be       [thou]       loved,  or  Do  thou  be  loved ; 

Plural.      2.  Be  [ye  or  you]  loved,  or  Do  you   be  loved. 

PARTICIPLES. 
1.   TJie  Imperfect.  2.   The  Perfect.         3.   The  P re-perfect. 

Being  loved.  Loved.  Having  been  loved. 

Or?. — In  the  fomiliar  style,  the  second  pers?on  shi^ular  of  this  ver>>,  13 
nsually  formed  thus  :  Ind.  'TIiou  art  loved,  Thou  iv;us  loved,  Thou  hast  been 
Jovsd,  Thou  had  been  loved,  Thou  will  be  loved,  Thou  will  have  been  loved. 
J'oT.  Thou  may  be  loved,  Thou  might  be  loved,  Thou  may  have  been  loved, 
Thou  niitrht  have  been  loved.  Subj.  If  thou  be  Joved,  If  tliou  were  loved. 
Imp.  Bo  [thouj  loved,  or  Do  thou  be  loved. 

IV.   FORM  OF  NEGATION. 
A  verb  is  conjugated  ncgativehj^  by  placing  tbe  adverb 


CHAP.  VI.]   ETYMOLOGY,— VERBS.— IRREGULARS.      91 

not  after  it,  or  after  the  first  auxiliary  ;  hut  the  infinitivo 
and  participles  take  the  negative  first :  as, 

Inf.  Not  to  love,  Not  to  have  loved.  Ind.  I  love  not,  or  [ 
do  not  love,  I  loved  not,  or  1  did  not  love,  I  have  not  loved, 
1  had  not  loved,  I  shall  not  love,  I  shall  not  have  loved.  Pot. 
1  may,  can,*  or  must  not  love  ;  I  miglit,  could,  would,  or  should 
not  love,  1  may,  can,  or  must  not  have  loved  ;  I  might,  could, 
would,  or  should  not  have  loved.  Subj.  Jf  1  love  not,  If  I  loved 
not.     Part.  Not  loving,  Not  loved,  Not  having  loved. 

V.    FORM  OF   QUESTION. 

A  verb  is  conjugated  interrogatively,  in  the  indicative 
and  potential  moods,  by  placing  the  nominative  after  it, 
or  after  the  first  auxiliarj^ :  as, 

Ind.  Do  I  love  ?  Did  I  love  ?  Have  I  loved  ?  Had  I  loved  ? 
Shall  I  love?  Shall  I  have  loved?  Pot.  May,  can,  or  must  I 
love?  Might,  could,  would,  or  should  I  love?  May,  can,  or 
must  1  have  loved  ?  Might,  could,  would,  or  should  I  have 
loved  ? 

VI.    FORM   OF   QUESTION"  WITH  NEGATION. 

A  verb  is  conjugated  inferrogaiively  and  negatively^  in  the 
indicative  and  potential  moods,  bj  placing  the  nomina: 
tive  and  the  adverb  7zo^  after  the  verb,  or  after  the  first 
auxiliary:  as, 

Ind.  Do  I  not  love  1  Did  1  not  love  1  Have  I  not  loved  ? 
Had  I  not  loved  ?  Shall  I  not  love  ?  Shall  I  not  have  loved  ? 
Pot.  May,  can,  or  must  I  not  love?  Might,  could,  would,  or 
should  I  not  love?  May,  can,  or  must  I  not  have  loved?  Might, 
could,  would,  or  should  I  not  have  loved  ? 

IRREGULAR  VERBS. 

An  irregular  verb  is  a  verb  that  does  not  form  the  pre- 
terit and  perfect  participle  by  assuming  d  or  ed;  as,  see^ 
saw,  seeing,  seen. 

(>B3.  1. — "When  the  verb  ends  in  a  sharp  consonant,  t  is  sometimes  im- 
properly substituted  for  ed,  maliing  the  preterit  and  tlie  perfect  participlo 
irregular  in  spellinor,  when  they  are  not  so  in  sound :  as,  distrest  for  distressed, 
tost  for  tossed,  mixt  I'or  mixed,  cracht  for  cracked. 

Obs.  2. — Wlien  the  verb  ends  with  a  smooth  consonant,  the  substitution 
of  t  for  ed  produces  an  irregularity  in  sound,  as  well  as  in  writing.     In  some 


*  When  power  is  denied,  can  and  not  are  united  to  prevent  ambiguity ;  as,  "  I  can- 
not fro.'  But  when  the  power  is  afhrnied,  and  something  else  is  denied,  the  words 
arc  written  fepar.ately;  as,  "The  Christian  apologist  cvi  not  merely  expose  the  utter 
baseness  of  the  intidel  assertion,  but  he  has  positive  ground  for  erecting  an  opposite 
and  confronting  assertion  in  Its  place." — Dr.  Chalmers. 


92 


INSTITUTES   OF   ENGLISH   GRAMMAR.      [PART  IT. 


such  irregularities,  the  poets  are  indnlcred  for  the  peIkB  of  rhyme:  but  the 
best  speakers  aud  writers  of  prose  prefer  the  regular  form  wherever  good  use 
has  sanctioued  it:  thixi',  learned  is  better  than  learnt ;  (ivt'iied,  than  fiurnt ; 
penned,  th. in  pent ;  u/jsorbed,  than  absorpt ;  swelled,  than  s/je^i;  smelkd,  thaa 
smelt;  though  both  forms  are  allowabl;'. 

(Jbs.  3. — Several  of  the  irregular  verbs  are  variously  used  by  the  best  au- 
thors ;  and  many  preterits  and  participles  which  were  formerly  in  good  use, 
are  now  obsolete,  or  becoming  so. 

Obs.  4.— The  simple  irregular  verba  are  about  110  in  number,  and  are 
nearly  all  monosyllables.  They  arc  derived  from  the  Saxou,  iu  which  lan- 
guage thoy  are  also,  for  the  most  part,  irregular. 

Obs.  5.— The  following  alphabetical  list  exhibits  the  simple  irregular  verbs, 
as  they  are  now  generally  used.  In  this  list,  aud  also  in  that  of  the  redun- 
dant verbs,  those  preterits  and  participles  which  are  supposed  to  be  prefer- 
able, and  best  supported  by  authorities,  are  placed  first.  Nearly  all  com- 
poimds  that  follow  the  form  of  their  simple  verbs,  or  derivatives  that  follow 
their  primitives,  are  purposely  omitted  from  both  tables.  Welcome  and  be- 
have,  unlike  come  and  hiive,  are  alvrays  regular,  and  therefore  belong  not  to 
either  list.  Some  words  which  are  obsolete,  have  also  been  omitted,  that 
the  learner  miarht  not  mistake  them  for  words  in  present  use.  Some  of  thoso 
which  are  placed  last,  are  now  little  used. 


LIST  OF  THE 

IRREGULAR 

VERBS. 

Presint. 

Preterit. 

Imp.  Participle.  Perfect  Participle. 

Arise, 

arose, 

arising, 

arisen. 

Be, 

Avas, 

being. 

been. 

Bear, 

bore  or  bare. 

bearing, 

borne  or  bom.* 

Beat, 

beat, 

beating. 

beaten  or  beat. 

Begin, 

began  or  begun, 

beginning, 

begun. 

Behold, 

beheld, 

beholding,  . 

beheld. 

Beset, 

beset. 

besetting. 

beset. 

Bestead, 

bestead, 

besteading, 

bestead. f 

Bid, 

bid  or  bade, 

bidding, 

bidden  or  bid. 

Bind, 

bound, 

binding, 

bound. 

Bite, 

bit. 

biting. 

bitten  or  bit. 

Bleed, 

bled, 

bleeding, 

bled. 

Break, 

broke. 

breaking, 

broken. 

Breed, 

bred. 

breeding, 

bred. 

Bring, 

brought, 

bringing. 

brought. 

Buy, 

bought, 

buying, 

bought. 

Cast, 

cast. 

casting, 

cast. 

Chide, 

chid, 

chiding. 

chidden  or  chid. 

Choose, 

chose, 

choosing, 

chosen. 

CIeave.| 

cleft  or  clove, 

cleaving, 

cleft  or  cloven. 

Cling,  ' 

clung, 

clinging. 

clung. 

Come, 

came, 

coming. 

come. 

Cost, 

cost. 

costing, 

cost. 

Cut, 

cut. 

cutting. 

cut. 

•  Borne  .^isnilies  carried ;  horn  .«i?iiifies  brought  forth. 

t  "And  they  shall  pass  through  it,  h.irdly  benteail,  and  huns^y."— /<(a«aA,  vili,  21. 
X  Cleave  to  split,  is  iircirular  as  above;  cleave,  to  slick,  is  regular,  but  clavtwaa 
foriaerly  used  in  the  preterit,  for  cleaved. 


CHAP.  VI.]    ETYMOLOGY.— VERBS.— IRREGULARS. 


93 


Present. 

Do, 

Draw, 

Drive, 

Drink, 

Eat, 

Fall, 

Feed, 

Feel, 

Fight, 

Find, 

Flee, 

Fling, 

Fly, 

Forbear, 

Forsake, 

Get, 

Give, 

Go, 

Grow, 

Have, 

Hear, 

Hide, 

Hit, 

Hold, 

Hurt, 

Keep, 

Know, 

Lead, 

Leave, 

Lend, 

Let, 

Lie,  (to  rest,) 

Lose, 

Make, 

Meet, 

Put, 

Read, 

Rend, 


Preterit. 

did, 

drew, 

drove, 

drank, 

ate  or  6at, 

fell, 

fed, 

felt, 

fought, 

found, 

fled, 

flung, 

flew, 

forbore, 

forsook, 

got, 

gave, 

went, 

grew, 

had, 

heard, 

hid, 

hit, 

held, 

hurtjf 

l<ept,J 

knew, 

led, 

left, 

lent, 

let, 

la", 

lost, 

made, 

met, 

put, 

rgad, 

rent. 


Imp.  Participle. 

doing, 

drawing, 

driving, 

drinking, 

eating, 

falling, 

feedin.g, 

feeling, 

fighting, 

finding, 

fleeing, 

flinging, 

flying,  _ 

forbearing, 

forsaking, 

getting, 

giving, 

going, 

growmg, 

having, 

hearing, 

hiding, 

hitting, 

holding, 

hurting, 

keeping, 

knowing, 

leading, 

leaving, 

lending, 

letting, 

lying, 
losing, 

making, 

meeting, 

putting, 

reading, 

rending. 


Perfect  Participle. 

done. 

drawn. 

driven. 

drunk  or  drank. 

eaten  or  eat. 

fallen. 

fed. 

felt. 

fought. 

found. 

fled. 

flung. 

flown. 

forborne. 

forsaken. 

got  or  gotten, 

given. 

gone. 

grown. 

had, 

heard, 

hidden  or  hid. 

hit, 

held  or  holden.* 

hurt. 

kept. 

known. 

led. 

left. 

lent. 

let. 

lain. 

lost. 

made. 

met. 

put. 

read. 

rent.§ 


*  '■TToMen  is  not  In  soneval  use;  and  is  chiefly  cmploycfl  by  attorneys."— (7rr>r/t?>t<\ 
I).  196.  Wells  marks  tliis  word  as  "obsolescent."— -Sc/*w»/  Gram.,  p.  1(13.  L.  Murray 
rejected  it.  but  Lowth  Citve  it  alone,  as  a  participle,  and  helrl  onlv  as  a  preterit. 

"t  "  I  liavc  been  found  i,'nilty  of  killing  cat.s  I  never  h>i.H(>(i:'—R:nlerick  Random. 

X  "They  keeved  aloof  as  they  p.assed  her  bye."—./:  Ilogrj,  Pilgrims  of  t/u,  Sipn, 
p.  19.  ' 

§  Perhaps  there  is  awtlioHty  sufticient  to  place  the  verb  rend  amons:  those  whicn 
arc  redundant.  See,  in  the  Grammar  of  English  Grammars,  four  examples  «'  Uw 
regular  form,  "  rend^" 


94 

DESTITUTES   OF  : 

ENGLISH   GRAMMAR.      [PART  XL 

Present. 

Preterit. 

Irnp.  Participle.  Perfect  Participle, 

Rid, 

'  rid. 

ridding. 

rid. 

Ride, 

rode. 

riding, 

ridden  or  rode. 

Ring, 

rung  or 

rang, 

ringing. 

rung. 

Rise, 

rose, 

rising, 

risen. 

Run, 

ran  or  run, 

running. 

run. 

Say, 

said, 

saying, 

said. 

See, 

saw, 

seeing, 

seen. 

Seek, 

sought, 

seeking, 

sought. 

Sell, 

sold. 

selling, 

sold. 

Send, 

sent, 

sending. 

sent. 

Set, 

set. 

setting. 

set. 

Shed, 

shed, 

shedding, 

shed. 

Shoe, 

shod, 

shoeing, 

shod.* 

Shoot, 

shot. 

shooting, 

shot. 

Shut, 

shut. 

shutting. 

shut. 

Shred, 

shred, 

shredding, 

shred. 

Shrink, 

shrunk 

or  shrank 

,  shrinking. 

shrunk  or  shruntea, 

Sing, 

sung  or 

sang, 

singing, 

sung. 

Sink, 

sunk  or  sank. 

sinking. 

sunk. 

Sit, 

sat. 

sitting. 

sat. 

Slay, 

slew, 

slaying. 

slain. 

SHng, 

slung, 

slinging. 

slung. 

Slink, 

slunk  or  slank, 

slinking. 

slunk. 

Smite, 

sn.ote. 

smiting. 

smitten  or  smit. 

Speak, 

spoke. 

speaking. 

spoken. 

Spend, 

spent, 

spending, 

spent. 

Spin, 

spun, 

spinning. 

spun. 

Spit, 

spit  or  ! 

spat, 

spitting, 

spit  or  spitten. 

Spread, 

spread, 

spreading. 

spread. 

Spring, 

sprung 

or  sprang 

,  springing, 

sprung. 

Stand, 

•  stood. 

standing, 

stood. 

Steal, 

stole. 

stealing. 

stolen. 

Stick, 

stuck, 

sticking. 

stuck. 

Sting, 

stung. 

stinging. 

stung. 

Stink, 

stunk  or  stank 

stinking. 

stunk. 

Stride, 

strode  or  strid, 

striding, 

stridden  or  strid. f 

Strike, 

struck, 

striking, 

struck  or  stricken.' 

Swear, 

swore, 

swearing, 

sworn. 

♦  "Shoe,  ^hoed  or  shod,  shoeing,  shoed  or  shod."— <?W  Gram.,  iy  W.  Ward,  p.  64; 
and  Fowle's  True  Eiujhsh  Oram.,  p.  46. 

f-  The  verb  stride,  a.ni\  its  derivative  6esi/«i(/«,  each  of  whieh  is  used  in  two  irregular 
forms,  show  also  a  tendency  to  beeome  redundant.  "  He  will  llnd  tlie  political  hobby 
WiiicU  he  has  bestrided  no  child's  nag."— TTie  Vanguard,  a  Newspaper. 

"Through  the  pressed  nostril  9.\>i:!C\.nc\e-heMrid,."—Cowper. 
"A  lank  haired  hunter  utridail."—  Whitiier'a  ^bbatU  Scene. 


CHAP.  VI  ]        ETYilOLOGY— VERBS.— REDUNDANTS. 


95 


Present. 

Preterit. 

Imp.  Participle.  Perfect  Participle. 

Swim, 

swum  or  swam, 

swimming. 

swum. 

Swing, 

swung  or  fewang, 

swinging, 

swung. 

Tako, 

took. 

taking. 

taken. 

Teach, 

taught, 

teaching, 

taught. 

Tear, 

tore. 

tearing, 

torn. 

Tell, 

told. 

telling. 

told. 

Think, 

thought, 

thinking, 

thought. 

Thrust, 

thrust, 

thrusting. 

thrust. 

Tread, 

trod. 

treading, 

trodden  or  trod. 

Wear, 

wore, 

wearing, 

worn. 

Wui, 

-won. 

winning. 

won. 

Write, 

wrote. 

writing, 

written.* 

REDUNDANT  VERBS. 

A  redundant  verb  is  a  verb  that  forms  the  preterit  or 
the  perfect  participle  in  two  or  more  ways,  and  so  as  to 
be  both  regular  and  irregular ;  as,  thrive,  thrived  or  throve, 
thriving,  thrived  or  thriven.  Of  this  class  of  verbs,  there 
are  about  ninety-live,  beside  sundry  derivatives  and 
compounds. 

Ob9.  1.— Those  irregular  verbs  wliich  have  more  than  one  form  for  the  pre- 
terit or  for  the  perfect  participle,  are  in  some  sense  redundant;  but,  as  tliero 
is  no  occasion  to  make  a  distinct  class  of  such  as  have  double  forms  that  are 
never  regular,  these  redundancies  are  either  included  in  the  preceding  list  of 
the  simple  irregular  verbs,  or  omitted  as  being  improper  to  be  now  recognized 
for  good  English.  A  few  old  preterits  or  participles  may  perhaps  be  account^ 
ed  good  English  in  the  solemn  style,  which  are  not  so  in  the  familiar :  as, 
"  And  none  spalce  a  word  unto  him." — Job,  ii,  13.  "  When  I  brake  the  fiva 
loaves." — Mark,  viii,  19.  "  Serve  me  till  I  have  eaten  and  drunken.'''' — Luke, 
Xvii,  8.  "It  was  not  possible  that  he  should  be  Jiolden  of  it." — Acts,  ii,  24. 
"  Thou  castedst  them  down  into  destrnctiou." — Psalms,  Ixxiii,  18.  "  l^ehold 
I  was  sJiapen  in  iniquity."— /6.,  Ii,  5.  "  A  meat-ofl'eriug  laken  m  the  ovea." 
— Leviticus,  ii,  4. 

"  With  casted  slough,  and  fresh  c(i\(ir\W.''''—STiakspeare. 
"  Thy  dreadful  vow,  loaden  with  death'."— .4(^(ZiSo?i. 

Obs.  2.— The  list  which  is  given  below,  (one  that  originated  with  G.  B., 
and  was  prepared  with  great  care,)  exhibits  the  redundant  verbs  as  they  aro 
now  generally  used,  or  as  they  may  be  usid  without  grammatical  impro- 
priety. If  the  reader  would  see  authorities  for  the  forms  admitted,  he  may 
find  a  great  number  cited  in  Brown's  largest  Grammar.  No  words  are  m- 
sertcd  in  the  following  table,  but  such  as  some  modern  authors  countenance. 
A  word  is  not  necessarily  vngrammatical  by  reason  of  having  a  rival  form 
that  is  more  common  ;  nor  is  every  thing  to  bo  repudiated  which  some  few 
grammarians  condemn. 

Obs.  3.— This  school  grammar,  as  now  revised  by  the  author  in  1854,  ex- 
hibits the  several  classes  of  verbs  in  the  same  manner  as  does  the  Grammarl 
of  English  Grammars,  which  was  first  published  in  1851.  All  former  lists 
of  our  irregular  and  redundant  verbs  are,  in  many  respects,  defective  and( 

*  "  Writ  and  wrote  wen?  formerly  often  used  .is  participles,  and  writ  also  as  a  pro 
tc'ilt,  but  they  arc  now  g'^ucnilly  discontiauctl  by  guod  writers."—  Worcoster'n  Diet. 


96 


INSTITUTES  OF  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.      [PART  II. 


erroneons  ;  nor  is  it  claimed  for  those  wliich  are  here  presented,  that  they 
arc  absoKitely  perfect.  1  trust,  however,  they  are  much  nearer  to  perfection, 
tlian  are  any  earUer  ones.  Anioncr  the  many  individuals  who  have  published 
Fchemes  of  these  verbs,  none  have  been  niore  respected  and  followed  than 
Lowth,  Murray,  and  Crombie;  yet  are  these  authors'  lists  severally  faulty  in 
respect  to  as  many  as  sixty  or  seventy  of  the  words  in  question,  though 
tlie  whole  number  but  little  exceeds  two  hundred,  and  is  commonly  reckoned 
Jess  than  one  hundred  and  eighty. 

Ob3.  4.— Tlie  grammatical  points  to  be  settled  or  taught  by  these  tables, 
are  very  many.  They  are  more  numerous  than  all  the  preterits  and  perfect 
participles  which  the  lists  exhibit ;  because  the  mere  absence  therefrom  of  any 
tbrni  of  preterit  or  perfect  participle  implies  its  condemnation,  and  the  omis- 
Bion  from  both,  of  any  entire  verb,  suggests  that  it  is  always  regular. 


LIST  OF  THE   REDUNDANT  VERBS. 


Present.  Preterit. 

Abide,  abode  or  abided, 

Awake,  awaked  or  awoUe, 

Lclay,  belayed  or  belaid, 

Eend,  bent  or  bended. 

Bereave,  bereft  or  bereaved. 

Beseech,  besouglit  or  beseeched, 

Bet,  betted  o/' bet, 

Betide,  betided  or  betid, 

Bide,  bode  or  bided, 

Blend,  blended  or  blent. 

Bless,  blessed  or  blest. 

Blow,  blew  or  blowed. 

Build,  built  or  builded, 

Burn,  burned  or  burnt, 

Burst,  burst  or  bursted, 

Catch,  caught  or  catched. 

Clothe,  clothed  or  clad, 

Creep,  crept  or  creeped, 

Crow,  crowed  or  crew. 

Curse,  cursed  or  curst. 

Dare,  dared  or  durst. 

Deal,  dealt  or  dealed. 

Dig,  dug  or  digged, 

Dive,  dived  or  dove, 

Dream,  dreamed  or  dreamt, 

Dress,  dressed  or  dreat. 

Dwell,  dwelt  or  dwelled. 

Freeze,  fioze  or  treezed, 

Geld,  gelded  or  gelt. 

Gild,  gilded  or  gilt, 

Gird,  girded  or  girt. 

Grave,  graved, 

Grind,  ground  or  grinded. 

Hang,  hung  or  hanged. 

Heat,  heated  or  het. 

Heave,  heaved  or  hove. 

Hew,  hewed. 

Kneel,  kneeled  or  knelt, 

Knit,  knit  or  knitted, 

Lade,  laded, 

Lay,  laid  or  layed. 

Lean,  leaned  or  leant. 

Leap,  leaped  or  iGapt, 

Learn,  learned  or  learnt, 

Light,  lighted  or  lit, 


Imper.  Participle. 

abiding, 

awaking, 

belaying, 

bending, 

bereaving, 

beseeching, 

betting, 

betiding, 

biding, 

blending, 

blessing, 

blowing, 

building, 

burning, 

bursting, 

catching, 

clothing, 

creeping, 

crowing, 

cursing, 

daring, 

dealing, 

digging, 

diving, 

dreaming, 

dressing, 

dwelling, 

fi-eezing, 

gelding, 

gilding, 

girding, 

graving, 

grinding, 

hanging, 

heating, 

heaving, 

hewing, 

kneeling, 

knitting, 

lading, 

layintr, 

leaning, 

leaping, 

learning, 

Lghting, 


Perfect  Participle. 
abode  or  abided, 
awaked  or  awoke, 
belayed  or  belaid, 
bent  or  bended, 
bereft  or  bereaved, 
besought  or  beseechei, 
betted  or  bet. 
betided  or  betid, 
bode  or  bided, 
blended  or  blent, 
blessed  or  blest, 
blown  or  blowed. 
built  or  builded. 
burned  or  burnt, 
burst  or  bursted. 
caught  or  catched. 
clothed  or  clad, 
crept  or  creeped, 
crowed. 

cursed  or  curst, 
dared. 

dealt  or  dealed. 
dug  or  digged, 
dived  or  diven. 
dreamed  or  dreamt* 
dressed  or  drest. 
dwelt  or  dwelled, 
frozen  or  freezed. 
gelded  or  gelt, 
gilded  or  gilt. 
girded  or  girt, 
graved  or  graven, 
ground  or  grinded, 
hung  or  hanged, 
heated  or  het. 
heaved  or  hoven. 
hewed  or  hewn, 
kneeled  or  knelt, 
knit  or  knitted, 
hided  or  laden, 
laid  or  layed. 
leaned  or  leant, 
leaped  or  leapt, 
learned  or  learnt, 
lighted  or  lit. 


CHAP.  VI.]         ETYMOLOGY.— VERBS.— DEFECTIVES. 


97 


Present.  Preterit. 

Mean,  meant  or  meaned, 

Mow,  mowed, 

Mulct,  mulcted  or  mulct, 

Puss,  ,        passed  or  past, 

I'ay,  paid  or  payed, 

I'en,  (to  coop,)  penned  or  pent. 

Plead,  pleaded  or  pled, 

Prove,  proved, 

Quit,  quitted  or  quit, 

Kap,  rapped  or  rapt, 

Eeave,  reft  or  reaved, 

Eive,  rived, 

Eoaat,  roasted  or  roast. 

Saw,  Bawed, 

Seethe,  seetiied  or  sod. 

Shake,  shook  or  shaked, 

Shape,  shaped, 

Sliave,  shaved, 

Shear,  Bbeaied  or  shore, 

Shine,  sliined  w  shone, 

Show,  showed. 

Sleep,  slept  or  sleeped. 

Slide,  slid  or  slided, 

Slit,  slitted  or  slit, 

Smell,  sinelled  or  smelt, 

Sow,  sowed. 

Speed,  sped  or  speeded. 

Spell,  spelled  or  spelt. 

Spill,  spilled  or  spilt. 

Split,  split  or  splitted, 

Spoil,  spoiled  or  spoilt. 

Stave,  stove  or  staved. 

Slay.  staid  oi'  stayed. 

String,  strung  or  Stringed, 

Strive,  strived  or  strove, 

Strow,  strowed, 

Sweat,  sweated  or  sweat. 

Sweep,  swept  or  sweeped. 

Swell,  swelled. 

Thrive,  thrived  or  throve. 

Throw,  threw  or  throwed. 

Wake,  -waked  or  woke. 

Wax,  waxed, 

Weave,  -wove  or  weaved, 

Wed,  wedded  or  wed. 

Weep,  wept  or  weeped. 

Wet,  wet  or  wetted. 

Whet,  ■  whetted  or  whet. 

Wind,  wound  or  winded, 

\V^ont,  wont  or  wonted, 

Work,  worked  or  wrought, 

VVring,  wringed  or  wrung. 


Imper.  Participle, 
meaning, 
mowing, 
mulcting, 
passing, 

paying, 

penning, 

pleading, 

proving, 

quitting, 

rapping, 

reaving, 

riving, 

roasting, 

sawing, 

seething, 

shaking, 


shaping, 

shaving, 

shearing, 

shining, 

showing, 

sleeping, 

sliding, 

slitting, 

smelling, 

sowing, 

speeding, 

spelling,' 

spilling, 

splitting, 

spoiling, 

staving, 

staying, 

stringing, 

Gtrivmg, 

strowing, 

sweating, 

sweeping, 

swelling, 

thriving, 

throwing, 

waking, 

waxing, 

weaving, 

wedding, 

weeping, 

wetting, 

whetting, 

winding, 

wonting, 

working, 

wringing, 


Perfect  Participle. 
meant  or  meaned. 
mowed  or  mown, 
mulcted  or  mulct, 
passed  or  past, 
paid  or  payed, 
penned  or  pent, 
pleaded  c/r  pled, 
proved  or  proven, 
quitted  or  quit, 
rapped  or  rapt, 
reft  or  reaved. 
riven  or  rived, 
roasted  or  roast, 
sawed  or  sawn, 
seethed  or  sodden, 
shaken  or  shaked. 
shaped  or  shapen. 
shaved  or  shaven, 
sheared  or  shorn, 
shined  or  shone, 
showed  or  shown, 
slept  or  sleeped. 
slidden,  slid  or  slided. 
slitted  or  slit, 
smelled  or  smelt, 
sowed  or  sown, 
sped  or  speeded, 
spelled  or  spelt, 
spilled  or  spilt, 
split  or  splitted. 
spoiled  or  spoilt. 
stove  or  staved, 
staid  or  stayed, 
strung  or  stringed, 
strived  or  striven, 
strowed  or  strown. 
sweated  or  sweat. 
swept  or  sweeped. 
swelled  or  swollen, 
thrived  or  thriven, 
thrown  or  throwed. 
waked  or  woke, 
waxed  or  waxen, 
woven  or  weaved. 
wedded  or  wed. 
wept  or  weeped. 
wet  or  wetted, 
v/hetted  or  whet. 
wound  or  winded. 
wont  or  wonted, 
worked  or  wrought, 
wringed  or  wrung. 


DEFECTIVE  VERBS. 

A  defective  verb  is  a  verb  that  forms  no  participles,  and 
is  used  in  but  few  of  the  moods  and  tenses ;  as,  beware,^ 
ought,  qtfofh. 


C8  INSTITUTES  OP  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.      [PARTH. 

Obs. — When  any  of  the  principal  parts  of  a  verb  are  wanting,  the  tenses 
usually  derived  from  those  parts  are  also,  of  course,  wanting.  All  the  auxil- 
iaries, except  do^  he,  and  have,  are  defective;  but,  as  auxiliaries,  they  becomg 
parts  of  other  verbs,  and  do  not  need  the  parts  which  are  technically  saidto 
he  ^^wantm^y  The  following  brief  catalogue  contains  all  our  defective 
verbs,  except  methinhs,  with  its  preterit  methmight,  which  is  not  Cnly  defect- 
ive, but  impersonal,  irregular,  and  deservedly  obsolescent. 

LIST   OF   THE   DEFECTIVE   VERBS. 


Fresent. 

Preterit. 

Present, 

PreteHL 

Beware, 
Can, 

Shall, 
Will, 

cinr^nlrl 

could. 

would. 

May, 

might. 

Quoth, 

quoth. 

Must, 

must. 

Wis, 

wist. 

Ought, 

ought. 

Wit, 

wot. 

Obs.  1. — Beware  is  not  used  in  the  indicative  present.  Must  is  never  varied 
in  termination.  Ought  is  invariable,  except  iu  the  solemn  style,  where  we 
■find  oughtest.  Will  is  sometimes  used  as  a  principal  verb,  and  a.s  such  is 
regular  and  complete.  Quoth  is  used  only  in  ludicrous  language,  and  is  not 
varied.  It  seems  to  bo  properly  the  third  person  singular  of  the  present ; 
ibr  it  ends  in  th,  and  quod  was  formerly  used  as  the  preterit :  as, 

"  Yea,  so  sayst  thou,  {quod  Troylus,)  alas !" — CTmucer, 

Oe3.  2. —  Wis,  preterit  wist,  to  know,  to  think,  to  suppose,  to  imagine,  ap- 
pears to  be  now  nearly  or  quite  obsolete ;  but  it  seems  proper  to  explain  it, 
because  it  is  found  in  the  Bible  :  as,  "  I  whst  not,  brethren,  that  he  was  the 
high  priest." — Acts,  xxiii,  6.  "He  himself  ' ?*i.s<  not  that  his  face  shone.'  " 
— Life  of  Schiller,  p.  iv.  Wit,  to  know,  and  wot,  knew,  are  also  obsolete 
except  in  the  phrase  to  wit ;  which,  being  taken  abstractly,  is  equivalent  to 
the  adverb  namely,  or  to  the  phrase,  that  is  to  say. 

Ocs.  3. — Some  verbs  from  the  nature  of  the  subject  to  v/hich  they  refer, 
can  be  used  only  in  the  third  person  singular ;  as.  It  rai/is  ;  it  snows ;  it 
freezes  ;  it  hails  ;  it  lightens  ;  it  thunders.  These  have  been  called  impersonal 
verbs.  The  neuter  pronoun  it,  which  is  always  used  before  them,  does  noli 
seem  to  represent  any  noun,  but,  in  connexion  with  the  verb,  merely  to  ex-  ' 
press  a  state  of  things. 


CHAPTEB  YII.— OF  PARTICIPLES. 

A  Participle  is  a  word  derived  from  a  verb,  partici- 
pating the  properties  of  a  verb,  and  of  an  adjective  or  a 
no  an ;  and  is  generally  formed  bj  adding  ing^  d,  or  ed, 
to  the  verb:  thus,  from  the  verb  rule,  are  formed  three 
participles,  two  simple  and  one  compound ;  as,  1.  ruling, 
2.  ruled,  3.  having  ruled. 

Obs.  I.- — Almost  all  verbs  and  participles  seem  to  have  their  very  essence 
in  motion,  or  the  p-nvati'On  of  motion — in  acting,  or  ceasing  to  act.  And  to  nil 
motion  and  rest,  tkne  smd  place  are  necessary  concomitants ;  nor  are  the  ideas 
of  degree  and  manner  often  iiTelevant.    Hence  the  use  of  if  uses  and  of  ad' 


CHAP.  VII.]        ETYMOLOGY —PARTICIPLES— CLASSES.       99 

nserbx.  For  whatsopver  comes  to  psws,  must  come  to  pass  sometime  and  some' 
where  ;  and,  in  every  event,  something  must  be  idi'eetcJ  somewhat  and  som^- 
7)ow.  Ilenee  it  is  evident  that  those  granmiuriiuis  arc  right,  who  say,  that 
^^  ail  participles  imply  time.''''  But  it  does  not  Ibllow  that  the  i»i^/is/t  par- 
ticiples divide  time,  like  the  tenses  of  a  verb,  and  specif  1/  the  period  of 
action;  on  the  contrary,  it  is  certain  and  manifest  tluit  they  do  not.  Tho 
phrase,  '■'■men  labouring,''^  conveys  no  other  idea  than  that  of  labourers  at 
work  ;  it  no  more  suggests  the  ti?ne,  than  the  place,  degree,  or  manner  of  their 
work.  All  these  circumstances  require  other  words  to  express  them ;  as, 
"  i\Ieu  now  here  awkwardly  hibouring  much  to  little  purpose." 

Obs.  2. — Participles  retain  tlic  essential  meaning  of  their  verbs ;  and,  like 
vcris,  are  either  active-transitive,  active-intrans'dive,  passive,  or  neuter,  in 
their  signification.  For  this  reason,  many  have  classed  them  with  the  verbs. 
But  their  formal  meaning  is  obviously  clifferent.  They  convey  no  atfirma- 
tion,  hut  usually  relate  to  nouns  or  pronouns,  like  adjectives,  except  when 
they  are  joined  with  auxiliaries  to  form  the  compound  tenses ;  or  when  tiicy 
Lave  in  part  the  nature  of  substantives,  like  the  Latin  gerunds.  Hence 
some  have  injudiciously  ranked  thein  with  the  adjectives.  We  have  as- 
signed them  a  separate  place  among  the  parts  of  speech,  because  experience 
has  shown  that  it  is  expedient  to  do  so. 

Ob3.  3. — The  English  participles  are  all  derived  from  the  roots  of  their 
respective  verlDs,  and  do  not,  like  those  of  some  other  languages,  take  their 
names  from  the  teme>i.  They  are  reckoned  among  the  principal  parts  in  the 
conjugation  of  their  verba,  and  many  of  the  tenses  are  formed  from  them. 
In  the  compound  forms  of  conjugation,  they  are  found  alike  in  all  (he  tenses. 
They  do  not  therefore,  of  themselves,  express  any  particular  time  ;  but  they 
denote  the  state  of  the  being,  action,  or  passion,  in  resrard  to  its  progress  or 
completion.  [See  remarks  on  the  Participles,  in  the  jPort-Boyal  Latin  and 
Ortick  Grammars.'] 

CLASSES. 

English  verbs  have  severally  three  participles ;  which 
have  been  very  variously  denominated,  perhaps  the  most 
accurately  thus :  the  Imj^erfect,  the  Perfect^  and  the  Pre- 
2:)erfect.  Or,  as  their  order  is  undisputed,  they  may  be 
conveniently  called  the  First,  the  Second.,  and  the  Third. 

I.  The  Imi:)erfed  Participle  is  that  which  ends  com- 
monly in  inrj.,  and  im])lies  a  continuance  of  the  being, 
action,  or  passion ;  as,  being,  loving,  seeing,  writing — being 
loved,  being  seen,  being  luriting. 

II.  ^\\Q  Perfect  Participle  is  that  which  ends  commonly 
in  ed  or  en,  and  implies  a  completion  of  the  being,  action, 
or  passion ;  as,  been,  loved,  seen,  loritten. 

in.  The  Preperfect  Participle  is  that  which  takes  the 
sign  having,  and  implies  a  previous  completion  of  the 
being,  action,  or  passion ;  as,  having  loved,  having  seen, 
having  written — having  been  loved,  having  been  writing, 
having  been  written. 

The  First  or  Imperfect  Participle,  when  simple,  is  al- 
ways formed  by  adding  ing  to  the  radical  verb  ;  as  look, 
looking:  when  compound,  it  is  formed  by  prefixing  bein/) 


100  INSTITUTES   OF   ENGLISH   GRAMMAR.      [PART  II. 

to  some  other  simple  participle  ;  as,  heing  reading,  being 
read,  being  com2)leted. 

Tiie  Second  or  Perfect  Participle  is  always  simple,  and 
is  regularly  formed  by  adding  d  or  ed  to  the  radical 
Yerb :  those  verbs  from  which  it  is  formed  otherwise, 
are  inserted  in  the  list  as  being  irregular  or  redundant. 

The  jy^m^  or  Pre^e?/cc/ Participle  is  always  compound, 
and  is  formed  by  prefixing  having  to  the  perfect,  when 
the  compound  is  double,  and  having  been  to  the  perfect 
or  the  imperfect,  when  the  compound  is  triple :  as,  hav- 
ing s'poken,  having  been  spolcen,  having  been  speaking. 

0ns.  1.— Some  have  supposed  that  both  the  simple  participles  denote 
present  t'nne ;  some  have  suppo.-ed  thnt  the  one  denotes  present,  and  tho 
other,  past  time ;  some  have  supposed  that  neither  has  any  regard  to  time ; 
and  some  have  supposed  that  both  are  of  all  times.  In  regard  to  the  man- 
ner  of  their  signification,  some  have  supposed  the  one  to  be  active  and  the 
ctlier  to  Idc  passive ;  some  have  supposed  tlio  participle  \viing\o  be  active 
or  neuter,  and  tlie  other  active  or  passive ;  and  some  have  supposed  that 
cither  of  them  may  be  active,  passive,  or  neuter.  Nor  is  there  any  more 
unanimity  among  grammarians,  in  respect  to  tlie  compounds.  Hence  several 
different  names  liave  been  loosely  given  to  each  of  the  participles  ;  and  some- 
times with  manifest  impropriety ;  as  when  Buchanan,  in  his  conjugations, 
calls  be'mg  Active — and  heen,  having  been,  and  luiving  had,  Passive.    The 


Bive,  the  Perfect  neuter ;  and  tlie  Third  has  been  called  the  Compound,  the 
Compound  active,  the  Compound  passive,  the  Compound  perfect,  the  Plu- 


perfect, the  Preterperfect,  the  Preperfect.  But  the  application  of  a  name  is 
of  little  consequence,  so  that  tiie  thing  itself  be  rightly  understood  by  the 
learner.  Grammar  should  be  taught  in  a  style  at  once  neat  and  plain,  clear 
and  brief.  Upon  the  choice  of  his  terms  the  writer  has  bestowed  much  re- 
flection ;  yet  he  finds  it  impossible  either  to  please  everybody,  or  to  explain 
all  the  reasons  for  preference. 

Obs.  2. — The  participle  in  ing  represents  the  action  or  state  as  continuing 
and  ever  incomplete ;  it  is  therefore  rightly  termed  the  Impeefect  participle : 
whereas  the  participle  in  ed  always  has  reference  to  the  action  as  dons  and 
complete  ;  and  is  by  proper  contradistinetiou  called  the  Peefect  participle.  It 
is  hardly  necessary  to  add,  that  the  terms  perfect  and  imperfect,  as  thus  ap- 
plied to  the  Englilh  participles,  have  no  reference  to  time,  or  to  those  tensea  of 
the  verb  which'are  usually  (but  not  very  accurately)  named  by  these  epithets, 
The  ii&rm^  present  imd  past  do  denote  time,  and  are  in  a  kind  of  oblique  con- 
tradistinction ;  but  how  well  they  apply  to  the  participles  may  be  seen  by  the 
following  texts :  "  God  was  in  Christ,  reconciling  the  world  unto  himself." — • 
"  We  pray  you  in  Christ's  stead,  be  ye  reconciled  to  God."— iY.  Faul. 

Obs.  3.— The  participle  in  ing  has,  by  many,  been  called  the  Present  parti- 
ciple. But  it  is  fis  applicable  to  past  or  future,  as  to  present  time  ;  otherwi!=o 
such  expressions  as,  "  I  had  been  writing,'"—''  I  shall  be  writing,''''  would  be 
solecisms.  It  has  also  beeu  called  tlie  active  participle.  But  it  is  not  alwaj  s 
active,  even  when  derived  from  an  active  verb :  for  such  expressions  as, 
"The  goods  are  seZ^i«^,"—" The  ships  are  now  building,''' are  m  use,  and 
not  without  authority.  The  distinguishing  characteristic  of  this  participle  is, 
that  it  denotes  an  unfinished  and  progressive  state  of  the  being,_ action,  o| 
passion;  it  is  therefore  properly  denominated  the  Imperjfect  participle..  It 
the  term  were  applied  with  reference  to  time,  it  would  be  no  more  objection- 
able than  the  word  present,  and  would  Uo  equally  supported  by  the  usage  of 


CHAP.  VII.]      ETYMOLOGY.— PARTICIPLES.— CLASSES.      101 

the  Greek  linguists.  This  n.amo  is  approved  hj  Murray^*  and  adopted  by 
Beveral  of  the  nioro  recent  prtunmariuus.  See  the  works  of  Dr.  Cromhlc,  J. 
Grant,  T.  O.  ChwcliUl,  R.  Hiley,  Ji.  H.  Smart,  M.  Harrison,  W.  G.  Lewis. 
J.  M.  M'  Culloch,  E.  Hazen,  K  Butler,  D.  B.  Tower,  W.  H.  Wells,  0.  W.  and 
J.  C.  Sanders. 

Obs.  4. — The  participle  in  ed,  as  is  mentioned  above,  denotes  a  completion 
of  the  being,  action,  or  passion,  and  should  therefore  be  denominated  tha 
Peufect  participle.  But  this  completion  may  be  spoken  of  as  present,  past^, 
or  future,  for  the  participle  itself  liaa  no  tenses,  and  makes  no  distinction  of 
time,  nor  should  tlie  name  be  supposed  to  refer  to  the  perfect  tense.  The 
perfect  participle  of  transitive  verbs,  being  used  in  the  formation  of  passive 
verbs,  is  sometimes  called  the  passive  participle.  It  has  a  passive  significa- 
tion, except  when  it  is  used  in  forming  the  compound  tenses  of  the  activo 
verb.  Hence  the  difference  between  the  sentences,  "I  have  written  a  let- 
ter," and,  "  I  have  a  letter  written ;" — the  former  being  equivalent  to  Scripsl 
literas,  and  the  latter  to  Sunt  mihi  tiferm  scriptce. 

Obs.  5. — The  third  participle  has  most  generally  been  called  the  Ckympoumi 
or  the  Compound  Perject.  The  latter  of  these  terms  seems  to  bo  rather  objec- 
tionable on  account  of  its  length  ;  and  against  the  former  it  may  be  urged 
that,  in  the  compound  forms  of  conjugation,  the  first  or  imperfect  partieipio 
is  a  compound :  as,  being  writing,  being  seen.  Dr.  Adam  calls  liaving  hved 
the  perfect  participle  active,  which  he  says  must  be  rendered  in  Latin  by  tho 
•pluperfect  o'i  the  subjunctive,  "as,  he  having  loved,  mmm  amavisset ;''''  but 
it  is  manifest  that  the  perfect  participle  of  the  verb  to  love,  whether  active  or 
passive,  is  the  simple  word  loved,  and  not  this  compound.  Many  writer3 
erroneously  represent  the  participle  in  ing  as  always  active,  and  the  partici- 
ple in  ed  as  always  passive ;  and  some,  among  whom  is  Buchanan,  making 
no  distinction  between  the  simple  perfect  loved  and  the  compound  having 
loved,  place  the  latter  with  the  former,  and  call  it  passive  also.  But  if  this 
participle  is  to  be  named  with  reference  to  its  meaning,  there  is  perhaps  no 
better  term  for  it  than  the  epithet  Pkeperfect, — a  word  which  explains  it- 
self, like  prepaid  or  prerequisite.  Of  the  many  other  names,  the  most  correct 
one  is  Pluperfect, — which  is  a  term  of  very  nearly  the  same  meaning.  Not 
because  this  compound  is  really  of  t!ie  jilupcrfect  tense,  but  because  it  always 
denotes  being,  action,  or  passion,  that  is,  or  was,  or  will  be,  completed  before 
the  doing  or  being  of  something  else;  and,  of  course,  when  the  latter  thing 
is  represented  as  pist,  the  participle  must  correspond  to  the  pluperfect  tense 
of  its  verb;  as,  '■'■  Having  explained  her  views,  it  was  necessary  she  should  ex- 
patiate on  the  vanity  and  futility  of  the  enjoyments  promised  by  Plea-sure." 
Jamieson^s  Phet.,  p.  181.  Here  having  explained  is  eouivaleut  to  when  she  had 
explained. 

Obs.  6. — Participles  often  become  adjectives,  and  are  construed  before  nouns 
to  denote  quality.  The  terms  so  converted  form  the  class  of  participial  ad- 
lectives.  Words  of  a  participial  form  may  be  regarded  as  adjectives.  1. 
When  they  reject  the  idea  of  time,  and  denote  something  customary  or 
habitual,  rather  than  a  transient  act  or  state ;  as,  A  lying  rogue,  i.  e.,  one 
addicted  to  lying.  2.  When  they  admit  adverbs  of  comparison ;  as,A  wora 
learned  man.  3.  When  they  arc  compounded  with  something  that  does  not 
belong  to  the  verb  ;  as,  nnfeeling,  xiufelt.  There  is  no  verb  to  vnfeel;  there- 
fore, no  participle  unfeeling  or  unfelt.  Adjectives  are  generally  placed  before 
their  nouns;  participles,  after  them. 

Obs.  7. — Participles  in  in{f  often  become  vmms.  "When  preceded  by  an 
article,  an  adjective,  or  a  noun  or  pronoun  of  the  possessive  case,  they  ara 
cuiistrued  as  nouns,  and  ought  to  have  no  regimen.    A  participle  iminedi- 

♦  "The  most  iineTccptionaMe  distinction  w7w>^  grammarians  make  between  tha 
parliciples,  i:?.  that  the  one  points  to  the  conthiuation  of  the  action,  passion,  or  staia 
denoted  by  the  verb;  and  the  other,  to  the  completion  of  it  Thus,  the  present  par- 
ticiple siirnifles  imperfect  action,  or  action  begun  and  not  ended  as,  'I  am  writing  a 
letter.'  Tlie  past  jiarticiple  signifies  aciwu perfected,  or  finished:  'I  have  ■written  a 
letter.' — 'The  letter  is  written.''^' — Murray's  Crrammar,  8vo,  p.  65.  "The  firsu  [par- 
tiiriple]  expresses  a  continiMtion;  the  others,  a  completion,'" — W,  Allen's  Gram,^ 
Wmo,  Loiidon,  1813,  p.  02. 


102  INSTITUTES   OF  ENGLISH   GllAMMAB      [PART  IL 

atcly  preceded  by  a  preposiiion,  is  not  converted  into  a  nonn,  and  tlierefora 
retains  it3  regimen ;  as,  "I  thanl^.  yoii/or  kelpinr;  Jum.''''  Participles  in  tliis 
construction  correspond  'witli  the  Ltitin  gerund,  and  are  Bometimes  called 
gerundives. 

Obs.  8. — To  distinguisli  the  participle  from  the  participial  noun,  the  learner 
should  observe  the  following/b(/r  things:  1.  JVoutij  take  articles  and  adjec- 
tives before  them ;  participles,  as  such,  do  not.  2.  Nouns  may  govern  tho 
possessive  case,  but  not  the  objective  ;  parti'iple-s  may  govern  the  objective 
case,  but  not  the  possessive.  3.  Noiais  may  be  the  subjects  or  objects  of 
verbs  ;  participles  cannot.  4.  Participial  nouns  express  actions  as  things  ; 
participles  refer  actions  to  their  agents  or  recipients. 

Obs.  y. — To  distinguish  the  perfect  participle  from  the  preterit  of  the  pamo 
form,  observe  the  sense,  and  see  ■which  of  the  auxiliary  forms  v/ill  express  it; 
thus,  hvcd  for  being  loved,  is  a  participle ;  but  loved  for  did  lo-ve,  is  a  preterit 
verb. 


ANALYSIS. 

An  adjective,  participle,  noun,  or  pronoun,  modifying 
or  completing  the  predicate  of  a  sentence,  and  relating 
to  the  subject,  is  called  an  attribute  ;  as,  "  Gold  is  ye% 
Imy — "  The  sun  is  shining^ — ''  Honesty  is  the  best 
•policy.''^ 

Obs.  1.— All  verbs  except  to  le  comprehend  within  themselves  both  the 
predicate  and  the  attribute,  into  which  they  may  generally  be  resolved.  For 
example,  in  the  sentence  "  The  sun  shines,"  the  verb  shines  is  equivalent  to 
is  skmmg,  is  being  the  afih-mative  or  predicative  word,  and  shining,  the  at- 
tribute. 

Obs.  2.— The  verb  that  connects  the  subject  and  tho  attribute,  must  ba 
active-intransitive,  passive,  or  neuter.  It  is  sometimes  called  the  copula. 
because  it  couples  or  unites  the  subject  and  the  attribute. 

Obs.  3. — The  verb  to  be,  in  most  eases,  only  affirms  or  indicates  othern-ise, 
the  connection  existing  between  the  subject  and  tlic  attribute.  When  the 
latter  is  a  noun,  it  may  express,  1.  Class;  as,  "Cain  was  a  murdererP 
"i.  Identity;  as,  "Gain  was  the  murderer  of  Abel."  3.  A'ame.;  a&,  "The 
child  was  called  John.'''  When  mere  existence  is  predicated,  the  verb  b« 
comprehends  both  the  i>redicate  and  the  attribute. 

_    Obs.  4.— Class,  identity,  name,  or  quality  may  be  attributed  to  the  subject 
in  various  ways  : 

1.  By  afFirming  directly  a  connectioa  between  it  and  the  subject,  as  in 

the  preceding  examples. 

2.  By  aihrming  it  to  belong  to  the  subject,  in  connection  with  a  particu- 

lar act  or  state  of  being ;  as,  "  She  looked  a  goddess,  and  she  walked 
a  queen."—"  The  sun  stood  still." 
S.  By  athrming  a  connection,  as  the  result  of  a  change ;  as,  "  He  luu 

become  a  scholar." 
4.  By  alErmiug  a  connection,  as  the  result  of  a  process  ;    as,  "  He  was 
elected  President."—"  The  twig  has  grown  a  tree." 
Obs.  5.— The  attribute  is  often  used  indejiniteh/,  that  is,  without  refereuco 
to  any  particular  subject;  as,  "To  be  good  is  to  be  happy.''— ''Ho  be  a  pod 
requires  genius."     In  analyzing,  this  may  be  called  the  indefinite  attribute. 
Obs.  6.— An  attribute  is  sometimes  indirectly  affirmed  of,  or  otherwise 
connected  with,  the  object  of  a  verb  ;    as,  "  They  elected  him  president:'-- 
"  Vice  luiB  left  liim  without  friends"  (i.  e.  friendless).     This  is  to  be  consid- 
ered as  a  modiilcation  of  the  predicate,  wid  may  bo  properly  called  the  i»- 
direct  attribute. 


CHAP.  VII.]  ETYMOLOGY.  103 


Ob3.  7.— Tho  conjuuction  as  is  often  employed  to  express  the  connection 
of  tho  attribute  with  the  subject  or  object  to  which  it  refers  ;  as,  "  She  was 
known  as  O'uriosit,//.''^ — "  They  engaged  her  as  a  governess. 


Obs.  8.— Tho  attribute,  when  it  is  a  noun  or  a  pronoun,  is  in  the  sama 
case  as  tho  subject  to  which  it  refers  ;  as,  "  It  is  /,  be  not  afraid."—"  Who 
is  she?" — "  They  believed  it  to  be  ??w." 

In  analyzing  a  sentence,  the  attribute  sliould  be  con^ 
sidered  one  of  the  pnnci}:>a?  ^3a?'fe. 

The  principal  parts  of  a  sentence  are,  therefore,  the 
SUBJECT,  the  PREDICATE,  and  the  object  or  attribute, 
if  there  be  either. 

The  other  parts  may  be,  1.  Primary  or  secondary  ad- 
juncts, 2.  AVords  used  to  express  relation  or  connection^ 
3.  Independent  words. 

Obs.— Of  the  four  principal  parts  of  a  sentence  enumerated,  the  only 
two  essential  parts  are  the  subject  and  the  predicate  ;  the  other  two  being 
accidental  or  occasional,  and  used  only  to  modify,  limit,  or  complete  tho 
predicate.  They,  however,  differ  so  widely  from  other  adjuncts,  and  per- 
form so  important  an  office  in  every  sentence  in  which  they  occur,  that 
grammatical  analysis  is  facilitated,  and  the  exact  nature  of  the  sentenca 
more  clearly  exhibited,  by  treating  them  as  distinct,  even  though  8ubordi- 
Gate,  elements  of  the  sentence. 

EXERCISES  IN  ANALYSIS  AND  PARSING. 

PRAXIS   V. — etymological. 

In  the  Fifth  Praxis,  it  is  required  of  the  2-)U2nl — to  classify 
and  analyze  the  sentence  according  to  the  preceding  praxis  ; 
in  addition,  to  'j)oint  out  the  attributes  and  their  adjuncts  ; 
and  to  parse  the  sentence  as  in  the  preceding  praxes,  distin- 
guishing besides,  the  classes  and  modifications  of  the  verbs. 
Thus  :— 


EXAMPLE  ANALYZED  AND  PARSED. 

"  Can  that  be  the  man  who  deceived  me  1" 

Anaxtsis. — This  is  a  complex  interrogative  sentence,  consisting  of  the  two 

simple  clauses,  Gaii  that  be  the  man  ?  and  Who  deceived  me,  oonneoted 

by  who. 
Tho  subject  of  the  principal  clause  is  that ;  tho  predicate  is  can  be  ;  and 

the  attribute  is  man. 
The  subject  and   the  predicate  have  no  adjuncts ;  the  adjuncts  of  the 

attribute  are  the,  and  the  dependent  clause. 
The  subject  of  the  dependent  clause  is  who ;  the  predicate,  deceived;  and 

the  object,  me.     ISeither  has  any  adjuncts. 

Passing. — Oan  is  a  verb  auxiliary  to  the  principal  verb  be,  because  it  is 
added  to  the  present  infinitive  to  form  the  particular  mood  and  tense 
in  which  the  verb  is  found. 
That  is  a  pronominal  adjective,  representing  man  understood,  in  the  third 
person,  singular  number,  masculine  gender,  and  is  in  the  nominativa 
case,  because  it  is  the  subject  of  the  verb  can,  be,  being  used  as  9 
uotm. 


104:  INSTITUTES   OF  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR.      [PART  II. 

Can  he  is  a  verb,  from  5c,  was,  leing,  leen;  it  is  irregular,  because  it  does 
not  form  its  preterit  and  perfect  participle  hy  assuming  d  or  ed ; 
ueuter,  because  it  expresses  simply  beiug  ;  it  is  fouud  iu  tlie  potential 
mood,  because  it  expresses  possibility  ;  m  the  present  tense,  because 
it  has  reference  to  what  now  exists  ;  it  agrees  with  its  subject  that  in 
the  third  person  and  singular  number.     (See  Definition,  page  71.) 

77ie  is  the  definite  article. 

Man  is  a  common  noun,  of  the  third  person,  singular  number,  masculino 
gender,  and  in  the  nominative  case,  because  it  is  an  attribute  relating 
to  the  subject  that. 

Who  is  a  relative  pronoun,  because  it  represents  the  antecedent  word 
man,  and  connects  the  principal  and  tiie  dependent  clause  of  the  sen- 
tence. It  is  of  the  third  person,  singular  number,  masculine  gender; 
and  is  in  the  uomiuativc  case,  because  it  is  the  subject  of  the  verb 
deceived. 

Deceived  is  a  verb,  from  deceive,  deceived,  deceiving,  deceived ;  it  ia  regular, 
because  it  forms  its  preterit  and  perfect  participle  by  assuminyr  d  ; 
active-transitive,  because  it  expresses  action  and  has  me  for  its  object ; 
it  is  found  in  the  indicative  mood,  because  it  simply  declares  :  in  the 
imperfect  tense,  because  it  expresses  time  fully  past ;  and  it  agrees 
with  its  subject  tvha  in  the  third  person  and  singular  number. 

JHe  is  a  personal  pronoun,  because  it  shows  by  its  form  that  it  is  of  the 
first  person  ;  it  is  of  the  singular  number,  masculine  gender  ;  and  iu 
the  objective  case,  because  it  is  the  object  of  the  verb,  fieceived  ;  it  ia 
declined,  Nom.  I,  Poss.  my,  or  mine,  Obj.  me.  j 

LESSON    I.  * 

John  has  been  very  sick.  William's  brother,  Henry,  might 
have  been  a  prosperous  man.  He  has  become  a  drunkard. 
Liberty  is  a  great  blessing.  The  leaves  of  roses  are  very  fra- 
grant. William  rapidly  became  a  good  scholar.  The  project 
surely  could  not  have  been  deemed  a  feasible  one.  The  con- 
tract was  pronounced  fraudulent.  Cool  blows  the  summer 
breeze.  lie  was  born  a  lord.  The  princess  was  crowned 
queen.  Washington  could  have  been  thrice  elected  president. 
The  memory  of  mischief  is  no  desirable  fame.  Art  is  long 
and  time  is  fleeting.  How  wonderful  is  sleep  !  The  soul  of 
the  diligent  shall  be  made  fat. 

LESSON   ir. 

The  seed  whicTi  was  planted  has  become  a  large  tree. 

Whatever  we  do  often,  soon  becomes  easy  to  us. 

They,  who  never  were  his  favorites,  did  not  expect  so  many 
kind  attentions. 

Columbus  must  indeed  have  been  an  extraordinary  man. 

The  man  who  feels  truly  noble,  will  become  so. 

Thomas  Jefferson,  who  wrote  the  Declaration  of  Indepen- 
dence, was  elected  the  third  president. 

Who  was  it  that  made  that  great  outcry  ? 

Errors  that  originate  in  ignorance,  are  generally  excusable. 

He  that  loveth  pleasure,  will  soon  become  a  poor  man. 

When  the  atmosphere  is  clear,  the  distant  hills  look  blue. 


CHAr,  VIII.]      ETYMOLOGY. — ADVERBS. — CLASSES.         105 

LESSON    III. 

He  might  have  been  guilty,  but  no  sufficient  proof  could  bo 
found. 

If  you  diligently  cultivate  your  mind  in  youth,  you  will  be 
happy  when  you  grow  old. 

A   wicked   messenger  falleth   into  mischief;  but   a  faithful 
ambassador  is  health. 

The  liberal  soul  shall  be  made  fat;  and  he  that  watereth 
shall  be  Avatered  also  himself.  '/  ?_,  -, 

The  fear  of  the   Lord  is  the  insl'ru'ction   of  wisdom  ;  and 
before  honor  is  humility.  .;.-..;'.*'*• 

If  wc  do  not  carefully  exercise  our  faculties,   they  will  soon 
become  impaired.  ,    ,    ^  --    :  - 

It   may   have  escaped  his   notieS;^^t  sucr  W'as  the  fact. 

Science  may  raise  thee  to  eminence ;  but  religion  alone  cai» 
guide  thee  to  felicity. 

Soft  is  the  strain  when  zephyr  gently  blows, 

And  the  smooth  stream  in  smoother  numbers  flows. 

The  shepherd  of  the  Alps  am  I, 

The  castles  far  beneath  me  lie  ; 
Here  first  the  ruddy  snnlio-ht  gleams. 
Here  linger  last  the  parting  beams. 

The  mountain  boy  am  I. 


-> 


CHArTEPv  YIIL— 0?  ADYEEBS. 


An  Adverb  is  a  word  added  to  a  verb,  a  participle,  an 
adjective,  or  an  other  adverb  ;  and  generally  expresses 
timC;  place,  degree,  or  manner :  as,  They  are  now  here, 
studying  very  diligently. 

0b3.  1. — Adverbs  briefly  express  what  would  otherwise  require  several 
words ;  sis,  Now,  for  at  this  time — Here,  for  in  this  place —  Veri/,  for  in  a  high 
degree — Dili^jently,  for  in  an  industrious  manner. 

'Obs.  2. — I'here  are  several  customary  combinations  of  short  words  which 
we  used  adverbially,  and  which  some  grammarians  do  not  analyze  in  pars^ 
ing;  as,  Not  at  all,  at  length,  in  vain.''  But  all  words  that  convey  distinct 
ideas,  should  be  taten  separately. 

CLASSES. 

Adverbs  may  be  reduced  to  four  general  classes: 
namely,  adverbs  of  time,  of  ;place,  of  degree,  and  of 
manner. 

5* 


106  I]SrSTITUTES  OF   ENGLISH   GKAMMAB,        [PAIIT II. 

I.  Adverbs  of  time  arc  thoso  which,  answer  to  the 
question,  When?  How  long?  How  soon?  or  How  often? 
including  these  which  ask. 

Obs. — Adverbs  of  time  may  be  subdivided  as  follo-^rg : — 

1.  Of  time  present;  as,  Now,  yet,  to-day,  presently,  instantly,  immediatdy. 

2.  Of  time  past;  as,  Already,  yesterday,  lately,  recently,  anciently,  hereto- 
fore, liithe7'to,  since,  ago,  erewluU. 

3.  Of  time  to  come ;  as,  To-morrow,  hereafter,  henceforth,  hj-and-by,  soon, 
creUmg. 

4.  Of  time  relative  ;  as,  When,  then,  before,  after,  while,  cr  whilst,  till,  un- 
til, seasonably,  l/elimes,  early,  late. 

5.  Of  time  absolute;  as,  Always,  «vcr,  never,  aye,  eternally,  perpetually^ 
continually. 

6.  Of  time  repeated ;  as,  Often,  oft,  again,  occadonally,  frequently,  some- 
times, seldom,  rarely,  -now-and-then,  daily,  tveekly^  monthly,  yearly,  once,  twice, 
thrice,  or  th>ve  times,  &c. 

7.  Of  the  order  of  time;  as.  First,  secondly,  thirdly,  fourthly,  &c. 

II.  Adverbs  of  _joiace -are' those  which  answer  to  the 
question,  Where?  Whither?  Whence?  or  Whereaboui? 
including  these  which  ask. 

Obs. — Adverbs  of  place  may  be  subdivided  as  follows : — 

1.  Of  place  in  which;  as,  Where,  here,  there,  yonder,  above,  heloio,  about, 
around,  somewhere,  anywhere,  elsewhere,  everywhere,  rurwhere,  wherever,  within, 
icithout,  whereabout,  hereabout,  thereabout. 

2.  Of  place  to  wliich;  as,  TVhither,  hither,  thither,  in,  vp,  down,  back,  forth, 
inwards,  upwards,  downwards,  backwards,  forwards. 

S.  Of  place  from  which;  as,  Whence,  hence,  thence,  aivay,  out. 

4.  Of  the  order  of  place;  as,  First,  secondly,  thirdly,  fourthly,  &c. 

III.  Adverbs  of  degree  are  those  which  answer  to  the 
question,  How  much  ?  How  little  ?  or,  to  the  idea  of  more 
or  less. 

Obs. — Adverbs  of  degree  may  be  subdivided  as  follows : — 

1.  Of  excess  or  abundance ;  as.  Much,  too,  very,  greatly,  far,  besides ;  chiefly, 
principally,  mainly,  generally  ;  entirely,  full,  fully,  completely,  perfectly, 
wholly,  totally,  altogether,  all,  quite,  clear,  stark ;  exceedingly,  excessively,  exr- 
iracagantly,  intolerahly ;  immeasurably,  inconceivably,  infinitely. 

2.  Of  equality  or  suSiciency  ;  as,  Enough,  sufficiently,  equally,  so,  as,  even. 

3.  Of  deticieocy  or  abatement ;  as,  Little,  scarcely,  hardly,  merely,  barely, 
only,  but,  partly,  partially,  nearly,  almost. 

4.  Of  quantity  in  the  abstract ;  as,  How,  (meaning,  in  what  degree,)  hoW' 
ever,  hc/wsoever,  everso,  something,  nothing,  anything,  and  other  uouna  of 
quantity  used  adverbially. 

IV.  Adverbs  of  manner  are  those  which  answer  to  the 
question.  How  ?  or,  by  affirming,  denying,  or  doubting, 
show  how  a  subject  is  regarded. 

Obs. — Adverbs  of  manner  may  be  subdivided  as  follows : — 

1.  Of  manner  from  quality  ;  as.  Well,  ill,  wisely,  foolishly,  justly,  quickly^ 
and  many  others  formed  by  adding  ly  to  adjectives  of  quality.  _ 

2.  Of  athrmatiou  or  iissent;  as,  Yes,  yea,  ay,  verily,  truly,  ind^eed,  surely^ 
certainly,  doubtless,  wndi^ubtedly,  certes,  forsooth,  amen. 

5.  Of  negation;  as,  No,  nay,  not,  ninvise. 

4.  Of  doubt ;  as,  FeriMps,  Imply,  possibly,  perchance,  peradventure,  inay-hc 


CHAP.  IX.]  BTYMOLOay.— ADVERBS.— COKJUNCTIONSo    107 

8.  Of  mode  or  way ;  as,  Tims,  so,  Tiow,  somehow,  however,  howsoever,  like,  eke, 
otherwise,  across,  together,  apart,  asunder,  namely, 'particularly,  necessarily. 
6.  Ofcftuse;  as,  Why,xc]ierefore,  therefore. 

CONJUNCTIVE   ADVERBS. 

Adverbs  sometimes  perform  the  office  of  conjunctions,  and 
serve  to  connect  sentences,  as  well  as  to  express  some  circum- 
stance of  time,  place,  degree,  or  manner :  adverbs  that  are  so 
used,  are  called  conjunctive  adverbs. 

Obs.  1. — Coniunctivo  adverbs  often  relate  equally  to  two  verbs  in  different 
clauses,  on  wliieh  account  it  is  tlie  more  necessary  to  distinguish  them  from 
others ;  as,  "  They  feared  zvhen  they  heard  that  they  were  KomanB."— ^cfo, 

xvi,  38.  „',,.. 

Oiis.  2.— The  following  words  are  the  most  frequently  used  as  conjunctive 
adverbs :  after,  aaain,  also,  as,  lefore,  besides,  else,  even,  hence,  however,  more- 
over, nevertheless,  'oihenoke,  since,  so,  then,  thence,  therefore,  till,  until,  when, 
where,  wkerefare,  while  or  whilst. 

Ob3.  S. — Adverbs  of  time,  place,  and  mariner,  are  generally  connected  with 
verbs  or  participles ;  those  of  decree  are  more  frequently  prefixed  to  adjec- 
tives or  adverbs. 

Ob8.  4. — The  adverbs  here,  there,  ah,d  where,  when  prefixed  to  prepositions, 
have  the  force  of  pronouns :  as,  Hereby,  for  by  this ;  thereby,  for  by  that ; 
whereby,  for  by  which.  Compounds  of  this  kind  are,  however,  commonly 
reckoned  adverbs.    They  are  now  somewhat  antiquated. 

Oiis.  5. — The  adverbs  how,  when,  whence,  where,  whither,  zohy,  and  where- 
fore, are  frequently  used  as  interrogatives  ;  but,  as  such,  they  severally  be- 
long to  the  classes  under  which  they  arc  placed. 

MODIFICATIONS. 

Adverbs  have  no  modifications,  except  that  a  few  are 
compared  after  the  manner  of  adjectives :  as,  Soon,  sooner, 
soonest; — oflen,  oftener,  oftenest ; — long,  longer,  longest. 

The  following  are  irregularly  compared  :  well,  better,  best ; 
hadly  or  ill,  worse,  worst ;  little,  less,  least ;  mitch,  more,  most ; 
far,  farther,  farthest ;  forth,  further,  furthest. 

Ob3.  1. — Most  adverbs  oi  (iualify,v^i\l  admit  the  comparative  adverbs  more 
and  most,  less  and  least,  betore  them :  as,  ivlsely,  more  tvisely^  most  ivisely  ; 
culpably,  less  culpably  least  culpably.  But  these  should  be  parsed  separately: 
the  degree  of  comparison,  as  an  inflection,  belongs  only  to  the  adverb  pre- 
fixed ;  though  the  latter  word  also  may  be  said  to  be  compared  by  means  of 
the  former. 

Obs.  2. — As  comparison  does  not  belong  to  adverbs  in  genera],  it  should 
not  be  mentioned  in  parsing,  except  in  the  case  of  those  few  which  are  varied 
by  it. 


CHAPTEE  IX.— OF  CONJUNCTIONS. 

A  Conjunction  is  a  word  used  to  connect  words  or 
eentences  in  construction,  and  to  show  the  dependencQ 


108  INSTITUTES   OF   ENGLISH   GRAMMAR.      [PAKT IL 

of  tlie  terms  so  connected :  as,  "  Thou  and  he  are  happj, 
because  you  are  good." — L.  Murra?/. 

CLASSES. 

Conjunctions  are  divided  into  two  general  classes, 
co2Julatwe  and  disjunctive /  and  some  of  each  of  these 
sorts  are  corresponsive. 

I.  A  copulative  conjunction  is  a  conjunction  that  de- 
notes an  addition,  a  cause,  or  a  supposition:  as,  "Ho 
and  I  shall  not  dispute ;  /or,  if  he  has  any  choice,  I  shall 
readily  grant  it." 

II.  A  disjunctive  conjunction  is  a  conjunction  that  do- 
notes  opposition  of  meaning:  as,  "Bo  not  overcome  [by] 
evil,  hut  overcome  evil  with  good." — Rom.,  xii,  21. 

III.  The  corresponsive  conjunctions  are  those  which  are 
used  in  pairs,  so  that  one  refers  or  answers  to  an  other : 
as,  "  John  came  weii!/ier  eating  nor  drinking." — Matthew, 
xi,  18. 

LIST  OF  THE   CONJUNCTIONS. 

The  following  are  the  principal  conjunctions : — 

1.  Copulative;  And,  as,  both,  because,  even,  for,  if,  that,  then, 
shice,  seeing,  so. 

2.  Disjunctive ;  Or,  nor,  either,  neither,  than,  though,  al- 
though, yet,  but,  except,  whether,  lest,  unless,  save,  notwithstand- 
ing. 

3.  Corresponsive;  Both — and;  as — as;  as — so;  if- — then; 
either — or;  neither — nor;  tohether — or;  though,  or  although 
—yet. 


CHAPTEE  X.— OF  PREPOSITIONS. 

A  Preposition  is  a  word  used  to  express  some  rela- 
tion of  different  things  or  thoughts  to  each  other,  and  is 
generally  placed  before  a  iloun  or  a  pronoun :  as,  The 
paper  lies  before  me  on  the  desk. 

Obs. — Every  relation  of  course  imj)lie3  more  than  one  subject.  In  all  cor- 
rect language,  the  grammatical  relation  of  the  words  corresponds  exactly  to 
the  relation  of  the  things  or  ideas  expressed ;  for  the  relation  of  words,  is 
their  dependence  on  each  other  according  to  tTie  sense.  To  a  preposition,  the 
antecedent  term  of  relation  may  be  a  noun,  an  adjective,  a  pronoun,  a  verb,  a 
participle,  or  an  adverb ;  and  the  subsequent  term  may  be  a  noun,  a  pronoun, 
nn  infinitive  verb,  or  a  participle.  The  learner  must  observe  that  the  terma 
of  relation  are  frequently  transposed. 


CHAP.  XI.]      ETYMOLOGY.— -INTERJECTIONS.— LIST.  l09 

LIST  OF  THE   PREPOSITIONS. 

The  following  are  the  principal  prepositions,  arranged  al- 
phabetically  :  Aboard,  about,  above,  across,  after,  w/ainst,  along, 
amid  ov  amidst,  among  or  amongst,  around,  at,  athwart; — Bat- 
ing,  before,  behind,  below,  beneath,  beside  or  besides,  between,  or 
betwixt,  beyond,  by  ; —  Concerning  ; — Down,  during  ; — Ere, 
except,  excepting ; — For,  from ; — In,  into; — Mid  or  midst; — • 
Jiotivithstanding  ; — Of,  off,  on,  out-of  over,  overthivart ; — Fast, 
pending  ; — liegarding,  respecting,  round  ; — Since  ; — Through, 
throughout,  till,  to,  touching,  toward  or  toivards  ; — Under,  un- 
derneath, until,  unto,  up,  upon  ; —  With,  within,  without. 

Obs,  1.— The  words  in  the  preceding  list  arc  generally  prepositions.  But 
when  any  of  theui  are  employed  without  a  subsequent  term  of  relation,  they 
nre  either  adjectives  or  adverbs.  For,  when  it  signifies  because,  is  a  conjunc- 
tion ;  withmt,  when  used  for  unless,  and  notivWistanding,  when  placed  before 
ft  nominative,  are  usually  referred  to  the  class  of  conjunctions  also. 

Obs.  2.— Several  words  besides  those  contained  in  the  foregoing  list,  are 
(or  have  been)  occasionally  employed  in  English  as  prepositions:  as,^, 
(chiefly  used  before  participles,)  abaft,  adoion,  afore,  ahft,  aloof,  alongside, 
anear,  amath,  anent,  aslant,  aslope,'  astride,  atueen,  atwixt,  besouth,  bywest, 
eross,  dehors,  despite,  inside,  left-hand,  maugre,  mimts,  onto,  opposite,  outsidSy 
per,j)lus,  sans,  spite,  thorough,  traverse,  versus,  via,  withal,  tvithinside. 


CHAPTER  XI.— OF  INTERJECTIONS. 

An  Interjection  is  a  Avord  tlint  is  uttered  merely  to 
indicate  some  strong  or  sudden  emotion  of  the  mind:  as, 
Oh  !  alas  !  ah  !  poh  !  pshaw  !  avaunt ! 

Obs. — Of  pure  interjections  but  few  are  ordinarily  admitted  into  books. 
As  words  or  sounds  of  this  kind  sc—e  rather  to  indicate  feeling  than  to  ex- 
press thought,  they  seldom  have  any  truly  definable  signification.  Their 
use  also  is  so  variable,  that  there  can  be  no  very  accurate  classification  of 
them.  Some  significant  words  properly_  belonging  to  other  classes,  are 
ranked  with  interjections,  when  uttered  with  emotion  and  in  an  unconnected 
manner. 

LIST   OF  TPIE   INTERJECTIONS. 

The  following  are  the  principal  interjections,  arranged  ac- 
cording to  the  emotions  which  they  are  generally  intended  to 
indicate: — 1.  Of  joy;  eigh!  hey!  io! — 2.  Of  sorrow;  oh!  ah! 
hoo!  alas!  alach !  lacTcaday  !  wclladay  !  or  tvelaway  ! — 3.  Of 
wonder;  heigh!  ha!  strange!  indeed! — 4.  Of  wishing,  earn- 
estness, or  vocative  address ;  (often  with  a  noun  or  pronoun 
in  the  nominative  absolute;)  0! — 5.  Of  praise;  well-done! 
good!  bravo! — 6.  Of  surprise  with  disapproval ;  wheiv  !  hoity- 
toity  !  hoida!  zounds!  what! — 7.  Of  pain  or  fear ;  oh!  ooh! 
ah!    eh!    0  dear! — 8.  Of  contempt;  fudge!   pugh!   poh! 

10 


110  IIsSTITUTES   OF   ENGLISH   GRAMMAE.      [PARTIL 

pshaw!  pish!  tush!  tut!  humph!— Q.  Of  aversion;  foh! 
faucjh!  fie!  fy!  foy! — 10.  Of  expulsion;  out!  off!  shoo! 
whew!  begone!  avaunt!  aroynt! — 11.  Of  calling  aloud ;  ho! 
soho!  what-ho!  hollo!  holla!  hallo!  halloo!  hoy!  ahoy! — 
12.  Of  exultation ;  ah!  alia!  huzza!  hey!  heyday!  hurrah! 
— 13.  Of  laughter;  ha,  lia,  ha;  he,  he,  lie;  te-hee,  te-hee. — 14. 
Of  salutation;  welcome!  liail!  all-hail! — 15.  Of  calling  to 
attention;  Jio !  lo !  la!  law!  look!  see!  behold!  hark! — 16. 
Of  calhng  to  silence;  hush!  hist!  whist!  ^st !  aw!  mwn! 
— 17.  Of  dread  or  horror;  oh!  ha!  hah!  tvhat!—\8.  Of 
languor  or  weariness;  Iieic/h-ho!  lieigh-ho-hum  ! — 19.  Of  stop- 
ping; hold!  soft!  avast!  tuhoh! — 20.  Of  -parting;  farewell! 
adieu!  good-by !  good-day! — 21.  Of  knowing  or  detecting; 
o]io!  ahali!  ay-av  ! — 22.  Of  interrogating ;  eli?  Iia?  liey  ? 

Ob3. — Besides  the?^:»,  there  are  several  others,  too  often  hoard,  whicli  are 
unworthy  to  be  f^C)aBidered  as  parts  of  a  cultivated  language.  The  frequent 
use  of  mterjecMond,  Bavoura  more  of  thoughtlessness  than  of  sensibility. 


ANALYSIS. 

When  two  or  more  subjects,  connected  by  a  conjunc- 
tion, belong  to  the  same  predicate,  or  two  or  -more  con- 
nected predicates  have  the  same  subject,  the  sentence 
should  be  considered  simple  with  a  compound  subject  or 
predicate. 

A  pJirase  is  two  or  more  words  which  express  some 
relation  of  ideas,  but  no  entire  proposition ;  as,  "  Of 
a  good  disposition." — "  To  be  plain  with  you." — "  Having 
loved  his  own." 

A  phrase  may  be  used  in  three  ways  ;  namely,  1.  As 
one  of  the  principal  parts  of  a  sentence ;  2.  As  an  ad- 
juuct;  8.  It  may  be  independent. 

An  adjunct  phrase  is  adjective,  adverhial,  or  explanatory. 

A  substantive  phrase  is  _one  used  in  the  place  of  a 
noun  ;  as,  "  To  do  good  is  the  duty  of  all." 

An  indepejident  johrase  is  one,  the  principal  part  of 
which,  is  not  related  to,  or  connected  Avith,  any  word  in 
the  rest  of  the  sentence;  as,  ^^  He  failing,  who  shall  meet 
success  ?" — ^"  To  be  plain  tvith  you,  I  think  you  in  fault." 

The  principal  part  of  a  phrase  is  that  upon  which  all 
the  others  depend  ;  as^  "  Under  every  misfortune.''^—' 
"  Having  cxliaiAskd  every  expedient." 


CHAP.  XI.]  ETYMOLOGY.  Ill 

Phrases  arc  cither  simple^  complex,  or  compound. 

A  simple  phrase  is  one  unconnected  with  any  other; 
as,  "  Of  an  obliging  disposition." 

A  complex  phrase  is  one  that  contains  a  phrase  or  a 
clause,  as  an  adjunct  of  its  principal  part ;  as,  "By  the 
bounty  of  Heaven." — "  To  be  plain  with  you." 

A  compound  phrase  is  one  composed  of  two  or  more 
co-ordinate  phrases;  as,  "Stooping  down  and  looking 
in." 

Phrases  arc  also  classified  as  to  their  form,  depending  upon 
the  introducing  word,  or  the  principal  part ;   thus, 

1.  A  phrase,  introduced  by  a  preposition,  is  called  a  'pre- 

positional phrase  ;    as,  "By  doing  good." — "Of  an 
engaging  disposition." 

2.  A  phrase  the  principal  part  of  which  is  a  verb  in  the 

infinitive  mood,    is    called    an   infinitive   phrase ;  as, 
"  To  be  good  is  to  he  hapjxjr 

3.  A  phrase  the  principal  Avord  of  wliich  is  a  participle,  is 

called  a  participial  phrase  •  as,  ""A  measure  founded 
on  justice^ 

OBS.-t-A  preposition  that  introduces  n  plirase,  serves  only  to  express  the 
relation  between  the  principal  part,  and  the  word  of  the  sentence,  on  which 
the  phrase  depends. 

A  phrase,  used  as  the  subject  or  the  object  of  a  verb,  must  be 
substantive  in  oflrcc,  and,  Avith  a  strict  adherence  to  grammati- 
cal rules,  can  only  be  infinitive  in  form  ;  as,  "  To  disobei/ 
jiarents  is  sinful." — "  William  loves  to  study  grammar.''''  Par- 
ticipial phrases  are,  however,  sometimes  used  by  good  -writers 
in  this  Avay;  as,  '■'■Hunting  the  buffalo^  is  one  of  the  sports  of 
the  West." — "  John's  father  opposed  his  going  to  sea^  [See 
Obs.  8,  page  102  ;  and  Note  111.,  with  Obs.  3,  under  it,  Syntax, 
Rule  XIV^] 

A  phrase,  used  as  an  attribute,  may  be  substantive  or  adjec- 
tive in  office,  and  may  have  the  following  forms : 

1.  Infinitive  ;  as,  "The  object  of  punishment  is  to  reform 

the  guilty.^' — '•  His  coirtlnct  is  greatly  to  be  admired.^'' 
[In  the  latter  example,  the  phrase  is  adjective,  to  be 
admired  being  equivalent  to  admirable^ 

2.  Prepositional  ;    as,   "  He   is    in   good  health^ — "  Tho 

train  was  behind  time^     [In  each  of  these  examples, 
the  phrase  is  adjectim?^ 
An  adjective  phrase  may  have  the  following  forms  : 

1.  Prepositional ;  as,  "  Carelessness  in  ths  use  of  mone^^ 
is  a  vice." 


112  INSTITUTES   OF   ENGLISH   GEAMMAn.       [PART  II. 

2.  Infinitive  ;     as,   "  Tho    desire    to    do    r/ood    is    praise- 

worthy." 

3.  Participial;  as,  '■^Seeing  tho  danger,  he  avoided  it." 
Au  adverbial  phrase  may  have  the  following  forms  : 

1.  Prejiositionul ;   as,  "  lie  was  attentive  to  his  business.''^ 

2.  Infinitive  ;    as,  "  They  were    anxious    to   ascertain  the 

truth.'" 
S.  Idiomatic  ;  as,  "  In  vain." — "Day  by  day." — "By  and 
by." — "  As  a  general  thing." 

An  explanatory  phrase  is  always  siihstantive  in  office,  and 
infinitive  in  form  ;  as,  "  It  is  pleasant  to  see  the  sunP 

The  mdependent  i>hrase  is  various  in  form  and  character. 
It  may  be  distinguished  as, 

1.  Infinitive  ;   as,  "  To  be  candid,  I  was  in  fault." 

2.  Particijnal  •  as,  "  Considering  the  circumstances,  mucli 

credit  is  due." 

3.  Vocative  ;  as,  "  Boast  not,  my  dear  friend,  of  to-morrow." 

4.  Pleonastic  ;  as,  "  llie  blessing  of  the  Lord,  it  maketh 

rich." 

5.  Absolute  ;  as,  "  The  sun  having  risen,  the  mists  were 

dispersed." 

Obs.  1.— The  last  form  of  this  phrase  is  often  adverbial  in  signification  ; 
RS  in  the  example  given,  in  which  it  is  equivalent  to  the  clause,  when  the 
tun  had  risen.     It  is,  therefore,  independent  only  iu  construction. 

Obs.  2. — An  adverbial  phrase  may  be  modified  by  an  adverb;  as,  "It 
lasts  but  for  a  moment ;"  i.  e.  but  equivalent  to  only,  and  modifying  the  ad- 
verbial phrase,  for  a  moment. 

Obs.  3. — A  phrase  or  a  clause  is  sometimes  used  as  the  object  of  a  prepo- 
Rition,  aud  thus  forms  a  prepositional  phrase  of  a  complex  or  anomalous 
character;  as,  "Blows  mi\de.w  from  between-his-shrivelec^lips.^^ — ^"  That  de- 
pends OH  who-can-run-tke-fastest.^^ 


EXERCISES  IN  ANALYSIS  AND  PARSING. 

PRAXIS   YI. — ETYMOLOGICAL, 

In  the  Sixth  Praxis,  it  is  required  of  the  2^upil — to  classify 
and  analgse  the  sentence  as  in  the  preceding  praxis  /  to 
classify  and  analyze  each  phrase  /  and  to  jjarse  the  sentence, 
distinguishing  the  'parts  of  speech,  and  all  their  classes  and 
modifications.      Thus : — 

EXAMPLE    ANALYZED    AND    PARSED. 

"  Ah !  who  can  tell  the  triumphs  of  the  mind. 
By  truth  illumined,  and  by  taste  refined  ?" 


CHAP.  XI.]  ETYMOLOGY.  11 


1 


Analysis. — This  is  ft  simplo  interrogative  sentence. 

The  Biibicet  is  who;  the  predicate,  can  tell ;  tlic  object,  triumplis. 

TJio  subject  and  predicate  are  immodificd  ;  the  adjuncts  of  the  object,  nro 
the  and  the  complex  adjective  phrase,  of  the  mind  illumined  bij  truth, 
and  refined  by  taste. 

The  principal  part  of  the  phrase  is  mind;  its  adjuncts  are  the  and  tl:o 
compound!  adjective  phrase,  illumined  hij  truth,  and  refined  by  taste, 
Avhich  consists  of  the  two  coordinate  participial  phrases  connected 
by  and. 

The  principal  part  of  the  former  is  illumined,  and  its  adjunct,  the  simp.u 
adverbial  plirase,  by  truth;  tlie  principal  part  of  the  latter  is  refined, 
and  its  adjunct,  tlie  simple  adverbial  phrase  by  taste.  Ah  is  an  inde- 
pendent word. 
Pausing. — Ah  !  is  an  interjection,  becanso  it  is  a  simple  exclamation  of  won- 
der or  admii'ation. 

Who  is  an  iuterrofjative  pronoun,  of  the  tliird  person,  singular  number, 
masculine  gender  ;  and  in  the  nominative  case,  because  it  is  the  sub- 
iect  of  tlie  verb  can  tell. 

By  i's  a  preposition,  because  it  shows  the  relation  between  truth  and  illu- 
mined, the  phrase  by  truth  being  an  adjunct  of  illumined. 

Truth  is  a  common  noun,  and  .abstract,  because  it  is  the  name  of  a  quality. 
It  is  of  the  third  person,  singular  number,  neuter  gender  ;  and  in  the 
objective  case,  because  it  is  the  object  of  the  preposition  by. 

Illumined  is  a  perfect  participle  from  the  regular  passive  verb  he  illumined 
It  performs  the  office  of  a  verb,  by  expressing  passion  ;  and  of  an  ad- 
jective, by  modifying  the  noun  mind. 

And  is  a  conjunction,  because  it  connects  the  two  phrases,  by  truth  illu- 
mined, by  taste  refined  ;  it  is  copulative,  because  it  expresses  an  ad- 
dition. 
B^"  [Parse  the  other  words  as  in  the  precedhag  praxes.] 

LESSON   I. 

Frankness,  suavity,  and  benevolence,  were  prominent  trails 
in  the  character  of  Dr.  Franklin. 

Industry,  good  sense,  and  virtue,  are  essential  to  health, 
-^vcalth,  and  happiness. 

Rural  employments  are  certainly  natural,  amusing,  and 
liealthful. 

Tlie  study  of  natural  history  expands  and  elevates  the  mind. 

Get  justly,  use  soberly,  distribute  cheerfully,  and  live  con- 
tentedly. 

Junius  Brutus,  the  son  of  ]\Iarcns  Brutus,  and  Collatinus, 
V\e  husband  of  Lucretia,  were  chosen  the  first  consuls  in 
Jiome. 

The  son,  bred  in  sloth,  becomes  a  spendthrift  and  a  profli- 
gate ;  and  goes  out  of  the  world  a  beggar. 

In  the  varieties  of  life,  Ave  are  inured  to  habits  both  of  the 
active  and  the  suftering  virtues. 

By  disappointments  and  trials,  the  violence  of  our  passions 
is  tamed. 

Having  sold  his  patrimony  he  engaged  in  merchandise. 

The  bounty  displayed  in  the  earth,  equals  the  grandeur 
manifested  in  the  heavens. 

10* 


114  INSTITUTES   OF   ENGLISH   GRAMMAR.       [PART  II. 


1^   iM   n  '""'"/i?/.-  > 

He,  stooping  clowfl  •and   looking  an;  saw 


LESSON  -II*  J,   r    ,    ,  A*^ 


/ 1  lyin 


He,  stooping  clowfl  "and   looking  fin*  saw   tlic  linen  clothes 


g  ;  vet  went  lie  not  in.  i^ 


.-3  T     ^-  r  i! 

Cheerftilness  k^eps^im-a  kind  of  day-light  in  the  mind,  and 
fills  it  with  a  steady  and  perpetual  serenity. 

Sitting  IS  the  best  posture  for  deliberation  ;  standing  for  per- 
suasion ;  a  judge,  therefore,  should  speak  sitting ;  a  pleader, 
standinof.  n 
(  The  pleasures  of  sense  resemble  a  foaming  torrentM^vhicli, 
afer'a  disorderly  course,  speedily  runs  out,  and  leaves  an  empty 
and  offensive  channel. 

Most  of  the  troubles  which  wc  meet  with  in  the  world,  arise 
from  an  irritable  temper,  or  from  improper  conduct. 

The  meeting  was  so  respectable,  that  the  propriety  of  its 
decision  can  hardly  be  questioned. 

They  who  arc  moderate  in  their  expectations,  meet  with  fc\Y 
disappointments. 

The  mighty  tempest  and  the  hoary  waste, 
Abrupt  and  deep,  stretch'd  o'er  the  buried  earth, 
Awake  to  solemn  thought. 

Loose,  then,  from  earth  the  grasp  of  fond  desire, 
Weigh  anchor,  and  some  happier  clime  explore. 


L^i^ 


CHAPTEE  XII.— EXAMINATION. 

QUESTIONS  ON  ETYMOLOGY. 

/ 

IxESSON  I. — PAET3  OF  SPEECH. 


Of  wbnt  does  Etymology  treat? 
How  many  and  wh;it  are  the  parts  of  speech  ? 
AVliat  is  an  article  ? — What  are  tlie  examples  ? 
"What  is  a  noun?— What  examples  are  given? 
What  is  an  adjective? — How  is  this  exemplified? 
What  is  a  pronoun  ? — How  is  this  exemplified  ? 
What  is  a  verb  ? — How  is  this  exemplified  ? 
What  is  a  participle  ? — How  is  this  exemplified? 
What  is  an  adverb  ? — How  is  this  exemplified  ? 
What  is  a  conjunction  ? — How  is  this  exemplified  ? 
What  is  a  preposition  ? — How  is  this  exemplified? 
What  is  an  interjection  ? — What  examples  are  given  ? 

LESSON  n. — PAESIN&. 

What  is  Parsing  ?    What  is  a  sentence  f 

What  is  a  perfect  defiwltio.i  ? — What  is  a  rule  of  grammar? 

What  is  af^m^is.^  and  what  the  literal  meaning  of  the  wordi 

What  is  an  example  f    What  is  an  exercise  f 

What  is  required  of  the  pupil  in  the  irusT  pkaxis  of  parsing. 


CHAP.  XII.]        ETYMOLOGY. — QUESTIONS.  115 

What  is  required  in  cacli  of  the  three  Exercises  given  ? 

How  is  the  following  cxaniplo  parsed?     "The  patient  ox  submits  to  tha 
yoke,  and  meek)}'  perlbniis  the  labour  rcquirecl  of  him." 
[Now  parse,  in  like  manner,  the  otlier  examples  under  the  First  Praxis.} 

lESSON   III. — AKTICLES. 

"What  is  an  Article? — Mention  the  examples? 

Ave  an  and  a  ditfereut  articles,  or  the  same  ? 

AV'hcn  is  an  used  ?  and  what  are  the  examples? 

^V■hen  is  a  used?  and  what  arc  the  examples? 

"What  form  of  the  article  do  the  sounds  ot  w  and  y  require? 

Kcpeat  the  alpliabet,  with  an  or  a  before  the  name  of  each  letter. 

Kaine  the  parts  of  speech,  witli  a/i,  or  a  before  each  name. 

How  arc  the  two  articles  distinguished  in  grammar? 

Which  is  the  definite  article,  and  what  does  it  denote? 

Which  is  the  indejinite  article,  and  what  does  it  denote? 

What  modifications  have  the  articles  ? 

LESSON   IV. — NOUNS. 

What  is  a  Noun  ? — Can  you  give  some  examples  ? 
Into  what  general  classes  are  nouns  divided: 
Wliat  is  a.pnmer  noun? — a  common  noun? 
What  particular  classes  are  included  among  common  nouns? 
What  is  a  collective  noun  ? — an  abstract  uouu  ? — a  verbal  or  participial  noun  1 
What  is  a  thing  sul  generis  f 
What  modifications  have  nouns  ? 
What  are  Persons  in  grammar? 

How  many  persons  are  there,  and  -what  are  they  called? 
Wiia-t  is  the Jird  person  ? — the  second  person? — the  third  person? 
What  are  Numbers  in  grammar  ? 

How  many  numbers  are  there,  and  what  are  they  called  ? 
Wiiat  is  the  singular  number  ? — the  plural  number  ? 
How  is  the  plural  mmiber  of  nouns  regularly  formed  ? 
■  What  are  the  rules  for  adding  s  and  es  to  form  the  plural  ? 

LESSON  V. — NOUNS. 

What  are  Genders  in  grammar  ? 

How  many  genders  are  there,  and  what  are  they  called  ? 

What  is  the  masculine  gender  ? — the  feminine  gender  ? — the  neuter  gender  I 

What  are  Cases  in  grammar? 

How  many  cases  are  there,  and  what  are  they  called  ? 

What  is  the  nimiinative  case  ? 

"What  is  the  subject  of  a  verb  ? 

What  is  the  possessive  case  ? 

How  is  the  possessive  case  of  nouns  formed? 

"\\'hat  is  the  objective  case? 

V/hat  is  the  object  of  a  verb,  participle,  or  preposition  ?        .  ^, 

AVhat  is  the  declension  of  a  noun  ? 

How  do  you  decline  the  nowin, friend,  man,  fox,  &nd Jli/  f     |    /r  ^ 

LESSON   VI. — ANALYSIS   AND   PAUSING. 

What  is  Analysis  f — What  is  the  subject  of  a  sentence  ? 
What  is  a  predicate  f — What  is  &, proposition  f 
What  is  a  simple  sentence  f 

Jiow  are  simple  sentences  divided  ? — Define  each. 
What  is  required  of  the  pupil  in  the  Second  Praxis  f 

LESSON  VII. — ADJECrrVES. 

What  is  an  Adjective? — How  is  this  exemplified  ? 
Into  what  classes  may  adjectives  be  divided  ? 

What  is  a  common  adjective? — a. proper  adjective? — a  numeral  adjective? — a 
pronominal  adjective? — &  participial  adjective? — a  compound  adjective  ? 


116  INSTITUTES  OF  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR.      [PART  IL 

"What,  modifications  have  adjectives  ? 

AVhat  is  Compariseu  in  grammar? 

How  many,  and  wiiat  are  the  degrees  of  comparison  ? 

yf hat  \s  the  positive  degrea  i — the  com2Mmtive  degree? — the  svperlati'M  de- 


grees 
■\\'iiat  adjectives  cannot  be  compared? 
%Vliat  adjectives  are  compared  by  means  of  adverbs? 
How  are  adjectives  regularly  compared? — Compare  great,  wide,  and  }u)t. 
To  what  adjectives  are  cr  and  est  applicable  ? 
]s  there  any  other  mode  of  expressing  tiie  degrees? 
How  are  the  degrees  of  diminution  expressed^ 
How  do  you  compare  good,  bad,  or  ill,  little,  much,  and  many? 
Ilow  do  yoii  compare  ./a/",  near,  fore,  land,  in,  out,  vp,  low,  and  latef 

LESSON   Till. — ANALTSB  AND   PAESINO. 

"Wlirtt  are  Adjimcts  ? — How  are  they  divided  ? 

"What  are  -primary  adjuncts  ? — What  are  secondary  adjuncts  t 

"What  is  an  adjective  adjunct  ? — An  adverbial  adjunct  ? 

AVhat  is  an  expkuiatory  adjunct? 

How  may  the  subject,  predicate,  and  object  be  modified  ! 

"VVliat  is  required  of  the  pupil  in  the  Third  Fra.cis  '/ 

iESSON   IX. — PKONOUNS. 

What  is  a  Peonopn  ? — Give  the  example. 

How  are  pronouns  divided  ? 

What  is  Vi, personal  pronoun  ? — Tell  the  personal  pronouns. 

AVhat  is  a  relative  pronoun  ■' — Tell  the  relative  pronouns. 

What  peculiarity  has  the  relative  wliat? 

What  is  an  interrogative  pronoun?— Tell  the  interrogatives. 

What  modifications  have  pronouns? 

What  is  the  declension  of  a  pronoun. 

How  do  you  decline  the  pronouns  /,  thou,  he,  she,  and  it? 

What  is  said  of  the  compound  personal  iironouns? 

How  do  you  decline  who,  ivkich,  what,  and  that? 

liow  do  you  deeiiue  the  compound  relative  pronouns  ? 

LESSON   X. — ANALYSIS   AND   PAUSING. 

What  is  a  Clause  ? — How  may  clauses  bo  couaected  S 
What  is  a  dependent  clause  ? — A  principal  clause  ?       ^ 
What  is  a  complex  sentence? — A  compound  sentence? 
What  is  required  of  the  pupil  in  th(i  Fourth  Praxis  ? 

LESSON   XI. — VEUCa. 

What  is  a  Verb? — What  are  the  examples? 

How  are  verbs  divided  with  respect  to  their  form? 

W  hat  is  a  regular  verb  ? — an  irregular  verb  ? — a  redundant  verb  ? — a  defectiv* 

verb? 
How  are  verbs  divided  with  respect  to  their  signification  ? 
What  is  an  active-transitive  verb? — an  active-intransitive  verb? — a,  passivi 

verb  ? — a  neuter  verb  ? 
What  modifications  have  verbs  ? 
What  are  Moods  in  grammar? 

How  many  moods  are  there,  and  what  are  they  called  ? 
What  is  the  infinitive  mood? — the  indicative  mood? — the  potential  mood?— • 

the  subjunctive  mood.? — the  imperative  mood? 

LESSON   xn. — YEBBS. 

What  are  Tenses  in  grammar  ? 

How  many  tenses  are  there,  and  what  are  they  called? 

What  is  the  present  tense? — the  imperfect  tense? — the  perfect  teme'i — ^tho 
pluperfect  tense  ? — the  first-future  tense  ? — the  second-future  tense  ? 


CHAP.  XII.]  ETYMOLOGY —QUESTIONS.  117 

"What  are  the  Person  ntul  Nnmbcr  of  a-  verb? 
How  iiiiiiiy  persons  and  numbers  belong  to  verbs? 
How  are  the  second  and  third  persons  singular  formed? 
"What  is  the  conjugation  of  a  verb? 

AVliat  ai-e  Wa^  principal  parts  in  the  conjugation  of  a  verb? 
What  is  a  verb  cai.ed  which  wants  soma  of  these  parts? 
\V  hat  is  an  auxiliary  in  grammar  ? 
Wiiut  verbs  are  used  as  auxiliaries  ? 

LES30X  XIII. — CONJUGATION. 

TVhat  is  the  simplest  form  of  an  English  conjugation? 

"What  is  the  first  example  of  conjugation? 

What  are  the  principal  parts  of  the  verb  love? 

How  many  and  what  tenses  iias  the  infinitive  mood? — the  indicative ?—i\xa 
potential? — the  subjunctive? — the  inoperative ? 

What  is  the  verb  love  in  the  Infinitive,  present? — perfect ?—/«^M!a^«e,  pres- 
ent?— imperfect  ? — perfect  ? — pluperfect? — first-tuture  ? — second-future  ?— 
I'otential,  present  ? — imperfect  ? — perfect  ? — pluperfect  ? — Subjunctive,  pres- 
ent?— imperfect? — Imperative,  present?     What  are  its  participles? 

LESSON   XIV. — SYNOPSIS. 

What  is  the  synopsis  of  the  verb  love,  in  the  first  person  singular? — second 
])erson  singular? — third  person  singular? — first  person  plural? — second 
person  plural? — third  person  plural  ? 

LESSON   XV. — THE  VERB  SEE. 

What  is  the  second  example  of  conjugation  ? 
How  is  the  verb  see  conjugated  throughout? 

How  do  yon  form  a  synopsis  of  the  verb  see,  with  the  pronoun  I?  tlcou  ?  luf 
ice?  you?  they? 

LESSON   XVI. — THE   VERB  BE. 

What  is  the  third  example  of  conjugation  ? 
How  is  the  verb  be  conjugated  throughout? 

How  do  you  form  a  synopsis  of  the  verb  be,  "with  the  nominative  I?  tJiout 
lie?  we?  you?  they?  the  man?  them.en? 

LESSON  XVII. — COMPOrND  FORM. 

How  else  may  active  and  neuter  verbs  be  conjugated  ? 
What  pecuhar  meaning  does  this  form  convey  ? 
What  IS  the  fourth  example  of  conjugation? 
How  is  the  verb  read  conjugated  in  the  compound  form  ? 
How  do  vou  form  a  synopsis  of  the  verb  he  reading,  with  the  nominative  // 
tlwu?  he?  tee?  you?  tlisy  ?  the  boy?  the  boys? 

LESSON  XVin. — PASSIVE  FORM. 

How  are  passive  verbs  formed  ? 
What  is  the  fifth  example  of  conjugation  ? 
How  is  the  passive  verb  be  loved,  conjugated  throughout? 
How  do  you  form  a  synopsis  of  the  verb  be  loved,  with  the  nominative  If 
thou  ?  he  ?  we  ?  you  ?  they  ?  the  child  ?  the  children  ? 

LESSON   XIX. — OTHER  FORMS. 

How  is  a  verb  conjugated  negatively? 

How  is  the  form  of  negation  exemplified  ? 

How  is  a  verb  conjugated  inten'ogatively  ? 

How  18  the  form  of  question  exemplified? 

How  is  a  verb  conjugated  interrogatively  and  negativtly  f 

How  is  the  form  of  negative  question  exemplified? 


118  INSTITUTES  OF  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.     [PART  IL 


LESSON   XX. — IBREGULAR  VEEB3. 


"What  is  an  irregular  verb  ? 

flow  many  irregular  verbs  are  there  ? — and  whence  are  they  derived  ? 

How  does  the  hst  exhibit  the  irregular  verbs  ? 

What  are  the  principal  parts  of  the  followintr  verbs  :— Arise,— Be,  bear,  beat, 
begin,  behold,  beset,  bestead,  bid,  bind,  bite,  bleed,  break,  breed,  bring, 
buy,— Cast,  chide,  choose,  cleave,  cling,  coitie,  cost,  cut, — Do,  draw^  drink, 
drive,— Eat,— Fall,  feed,  feel,  fight,  find,  flee,  fling,  fly,  forbear,  lorsake, 
—Get,  give,  go,  grow,— Have,  liear,  hide,  hit,  hold,  hurt,— Keep,  know  i 

LESSON   5X1. — lEEEGDLAK  VERBS. 

What  are  the  principal  parts  of  the  following  verbs  :— Lead,  leave,  lend,  let, 
lie,  lose,— Make,  meet,— Put,— Read,  rend,  rid,  ride,  ring,  rise,  run,— Say, 
see,  seek,  sell,  send,  set,  shed,  shoe,  shoot,  shut,  shred,  shrink,  sing,  sink, 
sit,  slay,  shng,  slink,  smite,  speak,  spend,  spin,  spit,  spread,  spring,  stand, 
steal,  stick,  sting,  stink,  stride,  strike,  swear,  swim,  swing, — Take,  teach, 
tear,  tell,  think,  thrust,  tread,— Wear,  wui,  write  ? 

LESSON  XXn. — ^KEDTINDANT  VEEB3. 

What  is  a  redundant  verb  ?  How  many  redundant  verbs  are  there  ?  What 
are  the  principal  parts  of  the  following  verbs :— Abide,  awake, — Belay, 
bend,  bereave,  beseech,  bet,  betide,  bide,  blend,  bless,  blow,  build,  burn, 
burst,— Catch,  clothe,  creep,  crow,  curse,— Dare,  deal,  dig,  dive,  dream, 
dress,  dwell,— Freeze,— Geld,  gild,  gird,  grave,  grind,— Hang,  heat,  heave, 
hew,— Kneel,  knit,— Lade,  lay,  lean,  leap,  learn,  liglit,— Mean,  mow, 
mulct  ? 

LESSON   XXm. — REDUNDANT  VERBS. 

What  are  the  principal  parts  of  the  following  verbs  :— Pass,  pay,  pen,  plead, 
prove, — Quit, — Rap,  reave,  rive,  roast,— Saw,  seethe,  shake,  shape,  shave, 
shear,  shine,  show,  sleep,  slide,  slit,  smell,  sow,  speed,  spell,  spill,  split, 
spoil,  stave,  stay,  string,  strive,  strow,  sweat,  sweep,  swell,- Thrive, 
throw,- Wake,  wax,  weave,  wed,  weep,  wet,  whet,  wind,  wont,  work, 
wring? 

What  is  a  defective  verb  ? — What  tenses  do  such  verbs  lack  3 

What  verba  are  defective  ?  and  wherein  are  they  so  ? 

LESSON   XXrV. — PARTICIPLES. 

What  is  a  Participle?  and  how  is  it  generally  formed  ? 

How  many  kinds  of  participles  are  there?  and  what  are  they  called? 

How  is  the  imperfect  participle  defined  ?  and  what  are  the  examples  ? 

How  is  the  perfect  participle  defined  ?  and  what  are  the  examples  ? 

How  is  ihe pr'qmfect  participle  defined?  and  what  are  the  examples? 

How  is  the  first  or  imperfect  participle  formed  ? 

How  is  the  second  or  perfect  participle  formed  ? 

How  is  the  third  or  preperfect  participle  formed? 

What  are  the  participles  of  the  following  verbs,  according  to  the  simplest 
form  of  conjugation:— Repeat,  study,  return,  mourn,  seem,  rejoice,  appear, 
approach,  suppose,  think,  set,  come,  rain,  stand,  know,  de-eeive? 

LESSON  XXV. — ANALYSIS  AND  PARSINQ 

What  is  an  Attrihute  ? 

What  are  the  principal  parts  of  a  sentence  ? 

What  may  the  other  parts  of  a  sentence  be  ? 

What  may  be  attributed  to  the  subject  ? — In  what  ways  ? 

Wliat  is  required  of  the  pupil  in  the  Fifth  I'i-axis? 

LESSON  XXVI. — ADVERBS  AND   CP'^JCNryflONS' 

What  is  an  Adverb?— What  is  the  example  ? 
To  what  classes  may  adverlw  bo  reduced? 


CHAP.  XIII.J     ETYMOLOGY.— WRITING.— EXERCISES.         119 

Wliicb  are  adverbs  of  time? — o{  place? — o{  degree? — of  manner? 

What  arc  conjunctive  adverbs? 

Have  adverbs  any  modifications  ? 

Compare  ivell,  badlif  or  ill^  little,  7nucJi,/ar  and  fortTi. 

What  is  a  Conju.n'ction  ? — How  are  conjunctions  divided  ? 

What  13  a  cymlative  con^nnctioa'i — a.  disjunctivecou^i^ notion  1 — acorrespon-tivi 

conjunction  ? 
What  arc  the  copulative  conjunctious  ? — the  disjunctive  ? — the  correspousive  ? 

LESSON  xsrvn. — peepositions  and  inteejections. 

What  is  a  Preposition  ? — How  are  the  prepositiona  arranprcd? 

What  are  the  prepositions  beginninj'  with  «/ — witli  h? — with  c? — with  df 
— with  e? — with  y.^ — with?'.? — witla  ?»/ — with  n? — with  o? — with^/— . 
with  ?•?— with  s? — with  t? — with  u? — witli  w? 

What  is  an  Intkhjection  ? — How  are  the  interjections  arranged  ? 

What  are  tlie  interjections  of  joy  ? — of  sorrow  ? — of  wonder? — of  wishing  op 
earnestness? — ot  praise  ? — of  surprise? — of  pain  or  fear? — of  contempt? — ■ 
of  aversion? — of  expulsion? — of  calUng  aloud  ? — of  exultation? — of  laugh- 
ter?— of  salutation? — of  calling  to  attention?— of  calling  to  silence? — of 
surprise  ? — of  languor  ? — of  stopping  ? — of  parting  ?— of  knowing  or  detect- 
ing ? — of  interrogating  ? 

LESSON   XXVIII. ANALYSIS   AND  PARSING. 

What  is  a  compound  subject  or  predicate  ? — What  is  a  plivase  ? 

How  may  a  pla-ase  be  used  ? — What  is  a  substantive  phrase  ? 

What  is  an  independent  phrase  ? — the  principal  part  of  a  phrase  * 

What  is  a  simple  phrase? — What  is  a  complex  phrase  ? 

What  is  a  compound  phrase  ? 

What  is  required  of  the  pupil  in  the  Sixtli  Praxis? 


CHAPTEE  XIII.— FOR  WRITING-. 

EXERCISES  IN  ETYMOLOGY. 

-^  ■  ["Vriicn  the  pupil  has  become  familiar  with  the  different  parts  of  speech,  and 
their  classes  and  modifications,  and  has  been  sutticiently  exercised  iu  etymological 
parsing,  he  should  write  out  the  following  exercises.] 

EXERCISE  L— ARTICLED 

1.  Prefix  the  definite  article  to  the  following  nouns :  path, 
paths ;  loss,  losses ;  name,  names ;  page,  pages  ;  want,  wants ; 
doubt,  doubts ;  votary,  votaries. 

2.  Prefix  the  indefinite  article  to  the  following  nouns  :  age, 
error,  idea,  omen,  urn,  arch,  bird,  cage,  dream,  empire,  farm, 
grain,  horse,  idol,  jay,  king,  lady,  man,  novice,  opinion,  pony, 
quail,  raven,  sample  trade,  uncle,  vessel,  window,  youth,  zone, 
whirlwind,  union,  onion,  unit,  eagle,  house,  honour,  hour,  her- 
ald, habitation,  hospital,  harper,  harpoon,  ewer,  eye,  humour. 

3.  Insert  the  definite  article  rightly  in  the  following  phrases  -. 
George  second — fair  appearance — part  first — reasons  most  ob- 
vious— good  man — wide  circle — man  of  honour — man  of  world 
— old  books — common  people — same  person — smaller  piece — • 
rich  and  poor — ^first  and  last — all  time — great  excess — nine 


120  INSTITUTES   OF  ENGLISH  GEAMMAR.     [PART  IL 

muses — how  rich  reward — so  small  number — all  ancient  wri- 
ters— in  nature  of  things — much  better  course. 

4.  Insert  the  indefinite  article  rightly  in  each  of  the  follow- 
ing phrases  :  new  name — very  quick  motion — other  sheep — 
such  power — what  instance — great  weight— such  worthy  cause 
— too  great  difference — high  honour — humble  station — univer- 
sal law — what  strange  event — so  deep  interest — as  firm  hope 
■ — so  great  wit — humorous  story — such  person — few  dollars — 
little  reflection. 

EXERCISE  II.— NOUNS. 

1.  Write  the  plural  of  the  following  nouns  :  town,  country, 
case,  pin,  needle,  harp,  pen,  sex,  rush,  arch,  marsh,  monarch, 
blemish,  distich,  princess,  gas,  bias,  stigma,  wo,  grotto,  folio, 
punctilio,  ally,  duty,  toy,  money,  entry,  valley,  volley,  half, 
dwarf,  strife,  knife,  roof,  muff,  staff,  chief,  sheaf,  mouse,  penny, 
ox,  foot,  erratum,  axis,  thesis,  criterion,  bolus,  rebus,  son-in- 
law,  pailful,  man-servant. 

2.  Write  the  feminines  corresponding  to  the  following 
nouns:  earl,  friar,  stag,  lord,  duke,  marquis,  hero,  executor, 
nephew,  heir,  actor,  enchanter,  hunter,  prince,  traitor,  lion, 
arbiter,  tutor,  songster,  abbot,  master,  uncle,  widower,  son, 
landgrave. 

3.  Write  the  possessive  case  singular  of  the  following  nouns: 
table,  leaf,  boy,  torch,  park,  porch,  portico,  lynx,  calf,  sheep, 
wolf,  echo,  folly,  cavern,  father-in-law,  court-martial. 

4.  Write  the  possessive  case,  plural,  of  the  following  nouns  : 
priest,  tutor,  scholar,  mountain,  city,  courtier,  judge,  citizen, 
woman,  servant,  writer,  mother. 

5.  Write  the  possessive  case,  both  singular  and  plural,  of 
the  following  nouns:  body,  fancy,  lady,  attorney,  negro,  nun- 
cio, life,  brother,  deer,  child,  wife,  goose,  beau,  envoy,  distaff, 
colloquy,  hero,  thief,  wretch. 

EXERCISE  III.— ADJECTIVES. 

1.  Annex  a  suitable  noun  to  each  of  the  following  adjectives, 
without  repeating  any  word :  good,  great,  tall,  wise,  strong, 
dark,  dangerous,  dismal,  drowsy,  twenty,  true,  difficult,  pale, 
livid,  ripe,  delicious,  stormy,  rainy,  convenient,  heavy.  Thus 
— good  pens,  &c. 

2.  Prefix  a  suitable  adjective  to  each  of  the  following  nouns, 
without  repeating  any  word :  man,  son,  merchant,  work,  fence, 
fear,  poverty,  picture,  prince,  delay,  suspense,  devices,  follies, 
actions.     Thus — wise  man,  &c. 

3.  Compare  the  following  adjectives :  black,  bright,  short, 


CHAP.  XIII.]     ETYMOLOGY.— WRITTN"G.— EXERCISES,        121 

white,  old,   high,  wot,   big,   few,  lovely,  dry,  fat,  good,  bad, 
little,  much,  many,  far. 

4.  Express  the  degrees  of  the  following  qualities,  by  the 
comparative  adverbs  of  increase :  delightful,  comfortable,  agree- 
able, pleasant,  fortunate,  valuable,  wretched,  vivid,  timid, 
poignant,  excellent. 

5.  Express  the  degrees  of  the  following  qualities  by  the 
comparative  adverbs  of  diminution  ;  objectionable,  formidable, 
forcible,  comely,  pleasing,  obvious,  censurable,  prudent. 

EXERCISE  IV.— PRONOUNS. 

1.  Write  the  nominative  plural  of  the  following  pronouns: 
I,  thou,  he,  she,  it,  who,  which,  what,  that. 

2.  Write  the  declension  of  the  following  pronouns  :  myself, 
thyself,  himseltj  herself,  itself,  whosoever. 

3.  Write  the  following  words  in  their  customary  form : 
her's,  it's,  our's,  your's,  their's,  who's,  meself,  hisself,  their-- 
selves. 

4»  Write  the  objective  singular  of  all  the  simple  pronouns. 

5.  Write  the  objective  plural  of  all  the  simple  pronouns, 

EXERCISE  v.— VERBS. 

1.  Write  the  four  principal  parts  of  each  of  the  following 
verbs :  slip,  thrill,  caress,  fjrce,  release,  crop,  try,  die,  obey, 
delay,  destroy,  deny,  buy,  come,  do,  feed,  lie,  say,  huzza. 

2.  Write  the  following  preterits  in  their  appropriate  form  : 
exprest,  stript,  lispt,  dropt,  jumpt,  prest,  topt,  whipti,  soakt, 
propt,  fixt,  stopt,  pluckt,  crost,  stept,  distrest,  gusht,  confest, 
snapt,  brusht,  shipt,  kist,  discust,  laekt. 

3.  Write  the  following  verbs  in  the  indicative  mood,  pres- 
ent tense,  second  person  singular  :  move,  strive,  please,  reach, 
confess,  fix,  deny,  survive,  know,  go,  outdo,  close,  lose,  pursue. 

4.  Write  the  following  verbs  in  the  indicative  mood,  pres- 
ent tense,  third  person  singular:  leave,  seem,  search,  impeach, 
fear,  redress,  comply,  bestow,  do,  woo,  sue,  view,  allure,  rely, 
beset,  release,  be,  bias. 

6.  Write  the  following  verbs  in  the  subjunctive  mood,  pres- 
ent tense,  in  the  three  persons  singular  :  serve,  turn,  turn, 
learn,  find,  wish,  throw,  dream,  possess,  detest,  disarm,  allow, 
pretend. 

EXERCISE  VI.— VERBS. 

1.  Write  a  synopsis  of  the  first  person  singular  of  the  active 
verb  amuse,  conjugated  affirmatively. 

6 


122  INSTITUTF,S  OF  ENGLISH  GBAMMAE.      [PAET  H. 

2.  Write  a  synopsis  of  the  second  person  singular  of  the 
neuter  verb  sit,  conjugated  affirmatively  in  the  solemn  style. 

3.  Write  a  synopsis  of  the  third  person  singular  of  the  active 
verb  speak,  conjugated  affirmatively  in  the  compound  form. 

4.  Write  a  synopsis  of  the  first  person  plural  of  the  passive 
verb  be  reduced,  conjugated  affirmatively. 

5.  Write  a  synopsis  of  the  second  person  plural  of  the  active 
verb  lose,  conjugated  negatively. 

6.  Write  a  synopsis  of  the  third  person  plural  of  the  neuter 
verb  stand,  conjugated  interrogatively. 

7.  Write  a  synopsis  of  the  first  person  singular  of  the  active 
verb  derive,  conjugated  interrogatively  and  negatively.     \     ,,- 

EXERCISE  VII.— PARTICIPLES.  ^ 

1.  Write  the  simple  imperfect  participles  of  the  following 
verbs :  belong,  provoke,  degrade,  impress,  fly,  do,  survey,  vie, 
coo,  let,  hit,  put,  defer,  differ,  remember. 

2.  Write  the  perfect  participles  of  the  following  verbs: 
turn,  burn,  learn,  deem,  crowd,  choose,  draw,  hear,  lend,  sweep, 
tear,  thrust,  steal,  write,  delay,  imply,  exist. 

3.  Write  the  pluperfect  or  preperfect  participles  of  the 
following  verbs :  depend,  dare,  deny,  value,  forsake,  bear,  set, 
sit,  lay,  mix,  speak,  sleep,  allot. 

4.  Write  the  following  participles  in  their  appropriate  form : 
dipt,  deckt,  markt,  equipt,  ingulft,  embarrast,  astonisht,  tost, 
embost,  absorpt,  attackt,  gasht,  soakt,  hackt,  blest,  curst. 

5.  Write  the  regular  participles  which  are  now  generally 
preferred  to  the  following  irregular  ones :  clad,  graven,  hoven, 
hewn,  knelt,  leant,  lit,  mown,  quit,  riven,  sawn,  sodden,  shaven, 
shorn,  sown,  strown,  swollen,  thriven,  wrought. 

6.  Write  the  irregular  participles  which  are,  or  may  be,  pre- 
ferred to  the  following  regular  ones :  bended,  builded,  catched, 
creeped,  dealed,  digged,  dreamed,  dwelled,  gilded,  girded, 
hanged,  knitted,  laded,  meaned,  reaved,  shined,  slitted,  spiitted, 
stringed,  strived,  weeped,  wonted,  wringed. 

EXERCISE  VIII.— ADVERBS,  &c. 

1.  Compare  the  following  adverbs :  soon,  often,  well,  badly 
or  ill,  little,  much,  far,  forth. 

2.  Prefix  the  comparative  adverbs  of  increase  to  each  of  the 
following  adverbs :  purely,  fairly,  sweetly,  earnestly,  patiently, 
completely,  fortunately,  profitably. 

3.  Prefix  the  comparative  adverbs  of  diminution  to  the  fol- 
lowing adverbs :  secretly,  slily,  liberally,  favourably,  power- 
fully. 


CHAP.  XIII.]     ETYMOLOGY.— WRITING.— EXERCISES.        128 

4.  Insert  suitable  conjunctions  in  place  of  the  following 
clashes :  Love — fidelity  are  inseparable.  Beware  of  parties — • 
factions.  Do  well — boast  not.  Improve  time — it  flies.  There 
would  be  few  paupers — no  time  were  lost.  Be  not  proud — 
thou  art  human.  I  saw — it  was  necessary.  Honesty  is  better 
— policy.  Neither  he — I  can  do  it.  It  must  be  done — to  day 
— to  morrow.  Take  care — thou  fall.  Though  I  should  boast 
— am  I  nothing.  • 

5.  Insert  suitable  prepositions  in  the  place  of  the  following 
dashes:  Plead — the  dumb.  Qualify  thyself — action — study. 
Think  often — the  worth — time.  Live — peace — all  men.  Keep 
— compass.  Jest  not — serious  subjects.  Take  no  part — slan- 
der. Guilt  starts — its  own  shadow.  Grudge  not — giving. 
Go  not — sleep — malice.  Debate  not — temptation.  Depend 
not — the  stores — others.  Contend  not — trifles.  Many  fall — 
grasping — things — their  reach.     Be  deaf — detraction. 

6.  Correct  the  following  sentences,  and  adapt  the  interjec- 
tions to  the  emotions  expressed  by  the  other  words :  Aha ! 
aha !  I  am  undone.  Iley !  io !  I  am  tired.  Ho !  be  still. 
Avaunt !  this  way.  Ah !  what  nonsense.  Heigh-ho !  I  am 
delighted.  Hist !  it  is  contemptible.  Oh !  for  that  symp» 
thetic  glow !     Ah  I  what  withering  phantoms  glare ! 


124  LN'STITUTES  OF   ENGLISH  GPAMMAR.     [PART  III 


PART    III. 
SYNTAX. 

Syntax  treats  of  tlie  relation,  agreement,  government; 
and  arrangement,  of  words  in  sentences. 

The  relation  of  words,  is  their  dependence,  or  con- 
nexion, according  to  the  sense. 

The  agreement  of  words,  is  their  similarity  in  person, 
number,  gender,  case,  mood,  tense,  or  form. 

The  government  of  words,  is  that  power  which  one 
word  has  over  an  other,  to  cause  it  to  assume  some  par- 
ticular modification. 

The  arrangement  of  words,  is  their  collocation,  or  rel- 
ative position,  in  a  sentence. 

[Obs.  1. — Syntax,  as  the  name  indicates,  has  reference  only  to  those  prin- 
ciples and  rules  which  servo  to  guide  us  iu  the  construction  of  sentences. 
Tne  principles  of  analysis  lie  much  deeper  in  the  subject  of  grammar — 
are  much  more  fundamental,  than  the  technical  considerations  which  form 
the  ground vvorlc  of  syntactical  rules. 

Sentential  analysis  is  founded  upon  the  general  laws  of  language  ;  and, 
therefore,  its  principles  are  as  applicable  to  one  language  as  anotlier  ;  syn- 
tactical rules,  on  the  other  hand,  can,  as  a  general  thing,  have  reference  only 
to  the  particular  language  the  use  of  whicU  they  are  designed  to  direct. 

Analysis  is  generally  introduced  in  connection  only  "vvith  syntax,  as  if  it 
had  a  special  and  exclusive  reference  to  that  department  of  grammar; 
whereas  it  deals  with  principles  that  underlie  almost  all  grammatical  dis- 
tinctions, and  is  quite  as  necessary  to  the  proper  elucidation  of  etymological 
relations  as  those  which  especially  belong  to  syntax.  The  classification  and 
definition  of  the  different  kinds  of  sentences,  and  their  elements  have  there- 
fore been  removed  from  this  part  of  the  work  (where  they  were  originally 
placed  by  the  author),  and  introduced  progressively  at  intervals,  in  connec- 
tion with  the  exercises  of  analysis  and  parsing,  designed  to  illustrate,  and 
practice  the  pupil  in,  each  consecutive  part  of  the  subject  studied.  The  deli- 
nition  of  a  sentence  immediately  follows  that  of  parsing  ;  because  up  to  that 
point,  the  term  had  been  twice  used ;  once,  in  the  definition  of  a  conjunction, 
and  once,  in  that  of  parsing  ;  a  fact  which,  of  itself,  demonstrates  the  elemen- 
tary character  of  this  definition,  and  to  what  extent  even  etymological  dis- 
tinctions depend  upon  it. 

Obs.  2. — Syntactical  rules  are  limited  to  the  construction  of  sentences,  as 
eeparate  portions  of  discourse ;  the  consideration  of  those  principles  and 
rules  which  regulate  the  combination  of  sentences  into  piiragraphs,  and  these 
a^ain  into  particular  kinds  of  composition,  is  not  comprised  in  the  subject 
ot  grammar,  but  iiUls  within  the  province  of  its  kindred  arts,  rhetoria  and 
logic. 

Oes.  S.— Eules  1,  2,  4,  9,  14,  15,  15,  17,  18,  20,  22,— nearly  one  half 
of  the  twenty-six  Eules  of  Syntax  laid  down  in  this  work,  are  rather  a 
repetition  of  the  definitions  comprehended  in  etymology,  than  separate  rules 
necessary  to  guide  us  in  the  construction  of  sentences,   i  or  example,  we  need 


CnAP.  I.]  SYNTAX. — IIULES.  125 

BO  rule  to  inform  ns  that  "  the  snhjcct  of  a  finite  verb  is  in  the  nominativo 
case,"  after  learning  that  the  "  noniinative  ease  is  that  form  or  state  of  n 
noun  or  pronoun  which  denotes  the  subject  of  a  Unite  verb."  The  case  is 
diflV-rent,  however,  when  we  have  two  or  more  couuecled  subjects  belonging 
to  the  same  verb  ;  for  here  etymology  gives  us  uo  exjjlicit  direetiou,  although 
it  still  alfords  the  guiding  principle. 

The  rules,  above  enumerated,  although  without  any  directive  utility,  form, 
however,  the  basis  for  many  snbordinaie  rules,  contained  in  the  observations 
and  notes,  whicli  should  be  attentively  studied  by  the  learner,  and  the  exer- 
cises upon  tliem  be  carefully  performed. — EorroR.] 

Obs.  4.— Words  tliat  are  omitted  by  ellipsis,  and  that  are  necessarily  un- 
derstood in  order  to  complete  the  coustructiou,  must  be  sujiplied  in  analysis 
cmd  parsing. 


CHAPTER  I.— THE   RULES   OF   SYNTAX. 
1.  RULES  OF  RELATION  AND  AGREEMENT. 

RULE   I. — ARTICLES. 

Articles  relate  to  the  nouns  whicli  they  limit. 

RULE   II. — NOMINATIVES. 

A  Noun  or  a  Pronoun  which  is  the  subject  of  a  finite 
verb,  must  be  in  the  nominative  case. 

RULE    III. — APPOSITION. 

A  Noun  or  a  personal  Pronoun  used  to  explain  a  pre- 
ceding noun  or  pronoun,  is  put,  by  apposition,  in  the 
same  case. 

RULE   IV. — ADJECTIVES. 

Adjectives  relate  to  nouns  or  pronouns. 

RULE    V. — PRONOUNS. 

A  Pronoun  must  agree  with  its  antecedent,  or  the 
noun  or  pronoun  which  it  represents,  in  person,  number, 
and  gender. 

RULE   VI. — PRONOUNS. 

"When  the  antecedent  is  a  collective  noun  conveying 
the  idea  of  pluralit}^,  the  Pronoun  mu3f,  agree  with  it  in 
the  plural  number. 

RULE  VIL — PRONOUNS. 

When  a  Pronoun  has  two  or  more  antecedents  coo- 

11* 


126  INSTITUTES   OF  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.     [PART  III. 

nected  bj  and,  it  must  agree  with  tliem  in  the  plural 
number. 

RULE   VIII. — PRONOUNS. 

"When  a  Pronoun  has  two  or  more  singular  antece- 
dents connected  by  or  or  nor^  it  must  agree  with  them  in 
the  singular  number. 

RULE   IX^ — VERBS. 

A  finite  Yerb  must  agree  with  its  subject,  or  nomin- 
ative, in  person  and  number. 

RULE   X. — ^VERBS, 

When  the  nominative  is  a  collective  noun  conveying 
the  idea  of  plurality,  the  Verb  must  agree  with  it  in  the 
plural  number. 

RULE  XL — VERBS. 

When  a  Verb  has  two  or  more  nominatives  connected 
by  and^  it  must  agree  With  them  in  the  plural  number. 

RULE   XII. — VERBS. 

When  a  Verb  has  two  or  more  singular  nominatives 
.connected  by  or  or  nor,  it  must  agree  with  them  in  the 
singular  number. 

RULE   XIII. — ^VERBS. 

When  Verbs  are  connected  by  a  conjunction,  they 
must  either  agree  in  mood,  tense,  and  form,  or  have 
separate  nominatives  expressed. 

RULE   XIV. — PARTICIPLES. 

Participles  relate  to  nouns  or  pronouns,  or  else  are 
governed  by  prepositions. 

RULE  XV. — ADVERBS. 

Adverbs  relate  to  verbs,  participles,  adjectives,  or 
Other  adverbs. 

RULE   XVI. — CONJUNCTIONS. 
Conjunctions  connect  either  words  or  sentences, 

RULE   XVII. — PREPOSITIONS. 

Prepositions  show  the  relations  of  things. 


CHAP.  I.]  SYNTAX.— RULES.  127 

RULE   XVIIL — INTERJECTIONS. 

Interjections  have  no  dependent  construction. 

2.  RULES  OF  GOVERNMENT.* 
RULE  XIX. — POSSESSIVES. 

A  noun  or  a  pronoun  in  the  Possessive  case,  is  gov- 
erned by  the  name  of  the  thing  possessed. 

RULE  XX. — OBJECTIVES. 

Active-transitive  verbs,  and  their  imperfect  and  pre- 
perfect  participles,  govern  the  Objective  case. 

RULE   XXI. — SAME   CASES. 

Active-intransitive,  passive,  and  neuter  verbs,  and 
their  participles,  take  the  same  case  after  as  before  them, 
when  both  words  refer  to  the  same  thing. 

RULE   XXII. — OBJECTIVES. 

Prepositions  govern  the  Objective  case. 

RULE  XXIII. — INFINITIVES. 

The  preposition  TO  governs  the  Infinitive  mood,  and 
commonly  connects  it  to  a  finite  verb. 

RULE  XXIV. — INFINITIVES. 

The  active  verbs,  hid,  dare^  feel,  hear^  ht,  make,  need^ 
see,  and  their  participles,  usually  take  the  Infinitive  aftei 
them,  without  the  preposition  to. 

RULE  XXV. — NOM.   ABSOLUTE. 

A  noun  or  a  pronoun  is  put  absolute  in  the  Nomin- 
ative, when  its  case  depends  on  no  other  word. 

RULE   XXVI. — SUBJUNCTIVES. 

A  future  contingency  is  best  expressed  by  a  verb  in 
the  Subjunctive,  present;  and  a  mere  supposition,  with 
indefinite  time,  by  a  verb  in  the  Subjunctive,  imperfect: 
but  a  conditional  circumstance  assumed  as  a  fact,  requires 
the  Indicative  mood. 

♦  The  Arrangement  of  words  is  treated  of,  in  the  Observations  under  the  Kales  of 
Syntax,  in  Chapters  2d  and  3d. 


128  INSTITUTES   OF   ENGLISH   GRAMMAR.       [PART  III. 


EXERCISES  IN  ANALYSIS  AND  PARSING. 

PRAXIS   VII. — SYNTACTICAL. 

In  the  Seventh  Praxis^  it  is  required  of  the  pupil — to  analyze 
the  sentence  according  to  the  method  indicated  under  each 
example  ;  to  diHtinguish  the  parts  of  sj^eecli  and  their  classes  ; 
to  mention  their  9nodif  cations  in  order  ;  to  j^oint  out  their 
relation,  agreement,  or  government  j  and  to  apply  the  Rule 
of  Syntax.     Thus  :  — 

EXA-MPLE    ANALYZED    AND    PARSED. 

"To  be  continually  subject  to  tbo  breatli   of  slander,  will 
tarnish  the  purest  reputation." 

Analyse. — Tliia  is  a  simple  declarative  sentence. 

The  subject  is  the  complex  infinitive  phrase,  to  be  contbiualhi  subject  to  the 
'breath  of  slander  ;  the  predicate  is  will  tarnish  ;  the  object  is  reputa- 
tion. 

The  principal  part  of  the  phrase  is  to  he,  and  its  adjuncts  are  continually, 
and  the  indefinite  attril)ute,  subject,  which  is  modified  by  the  complex 
adverbial  phrase,  to  the  breath  of  slander  •  the  principal  p.art  of  this 
phrase  is  breath,  which  is  modified  by  tlie,  and  tlie  simple  adjective 
phrase,  of  slander. 

The  predicate  of  the  sentence  has  no  adjuncts  ;  the  adjuncts  of  the  cbjeet 
are  the  aud  purest. 
Paesing. — To  be  is  an  irregular  neuter  verb,  from  he,  was,  being,  been  ;  found 
m  the  infinitive  mood  and  present  tense,  and  is,  with  the  phrase  cf 
which  it  is  the  principal  part,  the  subject  of  the  verb  will  tarnish ;  ac- 
cording to  Note  11,  under  Rule  IX.,  which  says,  "  The  infinitive  mood, 
a  phrase,  or  a  seuteneo,  is  sometimes  the  subject  to  a  verb."    . 

Continually  is  an  adverb  of  time,  and  relates  to  the  verb  to  be  ;  according 
to  Rule  XV.,  which  says,  etc. 

Subject  is  a  common  adjective,  of  tlic  positive  degree,  compared  only  by 
means  of  the  adverbs,  more  and  most,  .ind  less  and  least ;  it  is  taken 
abstractly  with  the  infinitive  to  be  ;  according  to  Exception  2d,  under 
Rule  IV.,  which  says,  "  With  an  infiiitive  or  a  participle  denoting 
being  or  action  in  the  abstract,  an  adjective  is  sometimes  also  taken 
abstractly.'''' 

Jb  is  a  preposition  ;  and  shows  the  relation  between  subject  and  Irreath  ; 
aeeoi'dmg  to  Rule  XVIL,  which  says,  etc. 

The  is  the  detinlte  article,  and  relates  to  breath  ;  according  to  Rule  I.,  which 
says,  etc. 

Breath  is  a  common  noun,  of  the  third  person,  singular  number,  neuter 
gender,  and  objective  case  ;  and  is  governed  by  to;  according  to  Rule 
XXIL,  which  says,  etc. 

Will  tarnish  is  a  regular  active-transitive  verb,  from  tarnis'h,  tarnished, 
tarnishing,  tarnished  ;  ibund  in  the  indicative  mood,  first-future  tense, 
third  person,  and  singular  number  ;  and  agrees  with  its  subject,  the 
infinitive  phrase  to  lie,  etc..  ;  according  to  Note  11,  under  Rule  IX., 
Tvhich  says,  "  The  infinitive  mood,  a  phrase,  or  a  sentence,  is  some- 
times the  subject  of  a  verb  :  a  subject  of  this  kind,  however  composed, 
if  it  is  taken  as  one  whole,  requires  a  verb  in  the  third  person  sin- 
giilar." 

Purest  is  a  common  adjective  of  the  superlative  degree,  compared,  pure, 
purer,  purest  y  it  relates  to  reputation  /  according  to  Rule  IV.,  whiob 
Bays,  etc. 


CHAP.  I.J      SYNTAX. — ANALYSIS  AND   TAKSING,  129 

Beputation  is  a  common  noun,  of  the  third  person,  sinfrnlar  uumber,  neu- 
ter gender,  and  objecfivo  case;  and  is  governed  by  will  tarnish;  &<y 
cording  to  llulo  XX.,  whicli  says,  etc. 


EXERCISE  I.— THE  SUBJECT  PHRASE. 

To  train*  citizens  is  not  the  work  of  n  day. 

To  be  liappy  -without  tlie  approval  of  conscience,  is  impofr 
sible. 

To  liavc  remained  calm  under  such  provocation,  was  a  proof 
of  remarkable  self-control. 

To  be  at  once  a  rake  and  glory  in  the  character,  discovers  a 
bad  disposition  and  a  bad  heart. 

To  meet  danger  boldly  is  better  than  to  wait  for  it. 

To  be  satisfied  with  the  acquittal  of  one's  own  conscience,  is 
the  mark  of  a  great  mind. 

To  be  totally  indifferent  to  praise  or  censure,  is  a  real  defect 
of  character. 

To   spring  up  from  bed    at  the  first  moment  of  waking,  is 
easy  enough  for  people  habituated  to  it. 

To  laugh  were  want  of  goodness  and  of  grace, 
And  to  be  grave  exceeds  all  power  of  face. 

EXERCISE  II.— THE  OBJECT  PHRASE. 

EXAMPLE    ANALYZED. 

"Can  a  youth  who  refuses  to  yield  obedience  to  his  parents, 
expect  to  become  a  good  or  a  wise  man  ?" 

Analysis. — This  is  a  eomplex  interro^rative  sentence. 

The  principal  clause  is,  Gm  a  youth  expect  to  becimw  a  (inocl  or  ivise  man  ? 
The  dependent  clause  is,  who  refuses  to  yield  obedience  to  his  parents. 
The  connective  is  tvho. 

The  subject  of  tlie  principal  clause  is  yovth  ;  the  predicate  is  expect ;  the 
object  is  the  infinitive  phraae,  to  hecome  a  good  or  a  wise  man. 

The  adjuncts  of  the  subject  are  «  and  the  dependent  clause  ;  the  predi- 
cate has  no  adjuncts  ;  the  principal  part  of  the  phrase  is  to  become^  and 
its  adjunct  is  the  attribute  «i«/t,  which  refers  to  the  subject  youth.,  and 
is  modified  by  the  adjuncts  a,  good.,  and  a,  wise.,  connected  by  or. 


*  Tlip  varinns  usages  of  the  infinitive  mood,  (»xliil)ite(i  in  tliesp  and  the  following 
clnssifled  phrases,  might  dictate  some  modification  of  Rule  XXIII.,  which  asserts 
that  the  infinitive  mood  is,  in  all  eases,  governed  by  the  preposition  to.  The  forms 
of  expression,  and  their  analysis,  here  given,  show  that  this  statement,  if  correct,  ex- 
plains scavcelv  at  all  the  natiire,  and  mode  of  use,  of  this  form  of  the  verb.  We  per- 
ceive that,  with  or  without  adjuncts,  it  may  be  used  as  the  subject  or  the  object  of  a 
verb,  or  as  a  substantive  or  adjective  attribute,  and  that  it  maybe  independent. 
Moreover,  wlu^n  it  introduces  an' adjective  or  adverbial  phrase,  it  appears  to  be  used 
as  an  .adjective  or  adverb,  although  it  may  be  considered  to  be  the  object  of  to  (if  a 
preposition),  or  of  sonu-"  preposition  understood.  In  tliis  ease  only,  does  Rule  XXIII. 
appear  to  have  anv  application  whatever.  A  more  general  rule,  and  one  more  in 
consoiiauoo  with  the  nature  of  this  form  of  speech,  would  be,  "The  inliaitive  mood 
has  the  coastructiun  of  a  noun  or  aa  adjective." 

6* 


130  INSTITUTES    OF   ENGLISH   GRAMMAR.       [PART  HL 

The  subject  of  the  dependent  clause  is  iclio  ;  the  predicate  is  refuses ;  the 
object  is  the  complex  infinitive  phrase,  to  yield  obedience  to  nis  parents. 
The  subject  and  the  predica.te  have  no  adjuncts  ;  the  principal  part  of 
the  phrase  is  to  yield,  its  adjunct  is  the  object,  obedience,  which  is  mod' 
ified  by  the  simple  adjective  phrase,  to  his  parents ;  the  principal 
part  of  this  phrase  is  parents,  and  its  adjunct  is  Ids. 

[j^°"  yMan  is  in  the  nominative  case,  after  become,  agreeing  with  youth;  ac 
eording  to  Rule  XXI.] 

If  you  desire  to  be  free  from  sin,  avoid  temptation. 

By  the  faults  of  others,  wise  mea  learn  hoAV  to  correct  thc!r 
own. 

In  reasoning,  avoid  blending  arguments  confusedly  together 
that  are  of  a  separate  nature. 

lie  who  refuses  to  learn  how  to  avoid  evil,  may  properly  bo 
deemed  guilty  of  it. 

He  did  not  oppose  his  son's  going  to  sea,  because  he  desired 
to  remove  him  from  the  evil  inlluence  of  bad  company. 

Never  expect  to  be  able  to  govern  others,  unless  you  have 
learned  how  to  govern  yourself. 

He  who  loves  to  survey  the  works  of  nature,  can  anticipate, 
wherever  he  may  be,  finding  sources  of  the  purest  enjoyment. 

He  who  attempts  to  please  every  body,  Aviil  soon  become 
an  object  of  general  indifference  or  contempt. 

None  but  the  virtuous  dare  hope  in  bad  circumstances. 

If  ever  any  author  deserved  to  be  called  an  original,  it  waa 
Shakespeare. 

EXERCISE  in.— THE  ATTRIBUTE  PHRASE. 

EXAMPLE    ANALYZED. 

"  The  predominant  passion  of  Franklin  seems  to  have  been 
the  love  of  the  useful." 

Analysis. — This  is  a  simple  declarative  sentcnc;. 

The  subject  is  passion  ;  the  predicate  is  wem.? ;  the  attribute  is  the  infini- 
tive phrase,  to  have  been  the  loi:e  of  the  useful. 

The  adjuncts  of  the  subject  are  the,  fredominunt,  and  the  simple  adjective 
plirase,  of  Franklin ;  the  predicate  has  no  adjuncts;  the  principal  part 
of  the  attribute  phrase  is  to  have  been,  and  its  adjunct  is  the  attribute 
love,  which  refers  to  the  eubject  passion,  and  is  modified  by  iJie,  and 
the  simple  adjective  plirase,  of  the  useful. 
'  [To  have  been  is  used  as  an  adjective,  and  relates  to  passion.] 


The  fire  of  our  minds  is  immortal,  and  not  to  bo  quenched. 

Universal  benevolence  and  patriotic  zeal  appear  to  have  been 
the  motives  of  all  his  actions. 

Children  should  be  permitted  to  be  children,  and  not  de- 
prived of  amusements  proper  for  their  age. 

Was  he  not  to  live  the  best  part  of  his  life  over  again,  and 
once  more  be  all  that  he  ever  had  been  ?  _ 


CHAP.  I.]      SYNTAX. — ANALYSIS  AND   PARSING.  131 

Criminals  are  observed  to  grow  more  anxious  as  their  trial 
approaches. 

Knowledge  is  not  to  be  received  inertly  like  the  influences  of 
the  atmosphere,  by  a  mere  residence  at  the  place  of  instruc- 
tion. 

The  great  purpose  of  poetry  is  to  carry  the  mind  above  and 
beyond  the  beaten,  dusty,  weary  walks  of  ordinary  life  ;  to  lift 
it  into  a  purer  element ;  and  to  breathe  into  it  more  profound 
and  generous  emotions. 

He  seems  to  have  made  an  injudicious  choice,  though  he  is 
esteemed  a  sensible  man. 
f-    Integrity  is  of  the  greatest  importance  in  every  situation  of 
life. 

To  bo  useful  in  some  degree,  is  within  the  means  of  every 
one. 

To  discover  the  true  nature  of  comets,  has  hitherto  proved 
beyond  the  power  of  science. 

His  conduct  was,  under  the  circumstances,  in  very  bad  taste. 

The  merchant  was  to  have  sailed  for  Europe  last  week. 


EXERCISE  IV.— THE  ADJECTIVE  PHRASE. 

EXAMPLE    ANALYZED. 

"  Leaning  my  head  upon  my  hand,  I  began  to  figure  to  my- 
self the  miseries  of  confinement." 

Analysis. — This  is  a  simple  declarative  sentence. 

The  subject  is  /;  the  predicate  is  hegan ;  the  object  is  the  complex  infin- 
itive phrase,  to  figure  to  myself  the  misenes  of  confinement.  The  prin- 
cipal pait  of  the  plu'ase  is  to  figure,  the  adjuncts  of  which  are  the 
simple  adverbial  phrase,  to  myself  and  the  object  miseries,  which  is 
modified  by  the  anel  the  simple  adjective  phrase,  of  confinement. 

Tlie  adjunct  of  the  subject  is  the  complex  adjective  phrase  'lemiing  viy  head 
v.fon  my  hand,  the  principal  part  of  which  is  leaning,  and  its  adjunct's, 
the  object  head  modified  by  my,  and  the  simple  adverbial  phrase, 
■upo7i  ray  hand,  the  prmcipal  part  of  which  is  hand,  ami  its  ad- 
junct, my. 

Jjife  bears  us  on  like  the  stream  of  a  mighty  river. 

Augustus  had  no  lawful  authority  to  make  a  change  in  the 
E-onian  constitution. 

A  habit  of  sincerity  in  acknowledging  faults,  is  a  guard 
against  committing  them. 

The  atrocious  crime  of  being  a  young  man,  I  shall  attempt 
neither  to  palliate  nor  deny. 

Envy,  surrounded  on  all  sides  by  the  brightness  of  another's 
])rosperity,  like  the  scorpion,  confined  within  the  circle  of  fire, 
etings  itself  to  death. 


132  INSTITUTES   OF   ENGLISH   GRAMMAR.      [PART  III. 

The  requisites  for  a  first-rate  actor  demand  a  combination  of 
talents  and  accomplishments,  not  easily  to  be  found. 

The  conflicts  of  the  world  were  not  to  take  place  altogether* 
on  the  tented  field ;  but  ideas,  leaping  from  the  world's 
awakened  intellect,  and  burning  all  over  with  indestructible 
life,  were  to  be  marshalled  against  principalities  and  powers. 


EXERCISE  v.— THE  ADVERBIAL  PHRASE. 


EXAMPLE    ANALYZED. 

"  We  live  in  the  past  by  a  knowledge  of  its  history,  and  in 
the  future  by  hope  and  anticipation." 

Analysis. — This  is  a  compound  declarative  sentence,  abbreviated  iu  form, 
and  consisting  of  the  two  coordinate  clause.^,  IFe  live  iu  the  past  by  a 
Jcnoivledge  of  its  history,  and  {we  liee)  in  the  future  by  ho;pe  and  antici- 
pation, connected  by  and. 
The  subject  of  either  clause  is  7ve  ;  and  the  predicate  is  live.  Neither  of 
the  subjects  is  modified.  The  adjuncts  of  the  first  predicate  are  the 
simple  adverbial  phrase,  i/i  the  jxist,  and  the  complex  adverbial  phrase, 
hy  a  knowledge  of  its  history  ;  the  principal  part  is  knotoledge,  and  its 
adjuncts  are  a  and  the  siinpie  adjective  phrase,  r/t)'s  7; /stor^i/.  [Tho 
adjuncts  of  the  second  predicate  ure  of  the  same  character,  and  may  be 
analyzed  iu  the  same  manuer.j 

At  that  hour,  O  how  vain  Avas  all  sublunary  liappiness  I 

Abstain  froiu  injuring  others,  if  you  Avish  to  be  in  safety. 

The  public  are  often  deceived  by  false  appearances  and  ex- 
travagant pretensions. 

Day  and  night  yield  us  contrary  blessings  ;  and,  at  tlie  same 
time,  assist  each  other,  by  giving  fresh  lustre  to  the  delights 
of  both. 

Man's  happiness  or  misery  is,  in  a  great  measure,  pat  into 
his  own  hands. 

Has  not  sloth,  or  pride,  or  ill  temper,  or  sinful  pcission,  mis- 
led you  from  the  path  of  sound  and  wise  conduct  ? 

Man  was  created  to  search  for  truth,  to  love  the  beautiful,  to 
desire  the  good,  and  to  do  the  best. 

Representation  and  taxation  should  always  go  hand  in  hand. 

The  statement  which  he  made  at  first,  he  reiterated,  again 
and  again,  without  the  least  variation. 

Jacob  loved  all  his  sons,  but  he  loved  Josej^h  the  best. 

There  is  very  often  more  happiness  in  the  cottage  of  the 
peasant  than  in  the  palace  of  the  king. 

*  Altnge'Iier  is  here  an  adverb  relating  to  the  adverbial  phrase,  on  the  tente<i  flekL 
See  Obs.  H,  pa^e  113. 


CHAP.  I.]      SYNTAX. — ANALYSIS   AND   PARSING.  133 


EXERCISE  VI.— THE  EXPLAxVATOEY  PHRASE. 


EXAMPLE    ANALYZED. 

"  It  is  useless  to  expatiate  upon  the  beauties  of  nature  to  ona 
who  is  blind." 

Analysis. — This  a  complex  dcclarativo  sentence. 

Tlie  principal  clause  is,  It  is  useless  to  expatiate  upon  the  hmuiies  of  nature 
to  one,  and  the  dependent  clause  is,  who  is  blind.  The  connective  is 
ivho. 

The  subject  of  the  principal  clause  is  it ;  the  predicate  is  is ;  and  tho 
attribute  is  useless. 

The  adjunct  of  the  subject  is  the  complex  explanatory  phrase,  to  expatiate 
vpon  the  l>eauties  of  nature  to  one.  The  principal  part  of  the  phrase  is 
to  expatiate,  the  acl^uncts  of  which  are  the  complex  adverbial  phrase 
-upon  the  beauties  of  nature,  and  the  simple  adverbial  phrase  to  one.  Tho 
principal  part  of  the  former  is  beauties,  and  its  adjuncts  are  the  and 
tlu  simple  adjective  phrase  of  nature  ;  the  principal  part  of  the  latter 
is  one,  and  its  adjunct  is  the  dependent  adjective  clause  who  u  blind. 

The  subject  of  the  dependent  clause  is  who;  the  predicate,  w;  and  tho 
attribute,  blind;  each  without  adjuncts. 

It  is  always  profitable  to  know  our  own  faults  and  infirmities. 

It  is  the  characteristic  of  a  pedant  to  make  an  idle  display 
of  Ins  learning. 

If  what  I  say  be  not  true,  it  is  easy  to  convict  me  of  false- 
hood. 

It  is  very  often  impossible  to  estimate  the  extent  of  injury 
which  a  careless  word  will  produce. 

How  happy  had  it  been  for  him  to  have  died  in  that  sick- 
ness, when  all  Italy  was  putting  up  vows  and  prayers  for  his 
safety ! 

It  is  certainly  in  the  power  of  a  sensible  and  well-educated 
mother  to  inspire  such  tastes  and  propensities  in  her  son  as 
shall  nearly  decide  the  destiny  of  the  future  man. 

It  is  impossible  to  read  a  page  in  Plato,  Tully,  or  any  of  the 
other  eminent  moralists  of  antiquity,  without  being  a  greater 
and  better  man  for  it. 

If  we  would  improve  our  minds  by  conversation,  it  is  a  great 
happiness  to  be  acquainted  with  persons  wiser  than  ourselves. 

If  we  were  base  enouo-h  to  desire  it,  it  is  now  too  late  to 
retire  from  the  contest. 

It  is  a  miserable  state  of  mind  to  have  few  things  to  desire, 
and  many  things  to  fear. 

'  Death  !     Great  proprietor  of  all  \  'tis  thine 
To  tread  out  empire,  and  to  quench  the  stars. 

Through  worlds  unnumber'd  though  the  God  be  known, 
'Tis  ours  to  trace  him  only  in  our  own. 

12 


134:  INSTITUTES   OF  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR.      [PART  III. 

EXERCISE  VII.— THE  INDEPENDENT  PHRASE. 

EXAMPLE    ANALYZED. 

"  This  proposition  being  admitted,  I  now  state  my  argument." 

Analysis. — This  h  a  simple  declarative  sentence. 
The  subject  is  /;  the  predicate  is  state ;  the  object  is  argument. 
The  suljject  has  no  acTjuncts  ;  the  adjunct  of  the  predicate  is  now  ;  tha 

adjunct  of  the  object  is  my. 
This  prajyosition  being  admitted  is  an  independent  phrase ;  the  principal 

part  is  proposition,  and  its  adjuncts  are  this  and  oeing  admitted. 

EXAMPLE    II. 

"  One  day,  I  was  guilty  of  an  action  which,  to  say  the  least, 
■was  in  very  bad  taste." 

Analysis. — This  is  a  complex  declarative  sentence. 

The  principal  clause  is,  One  day  Iivas  guilty  of  an  action;  and  the  depend- 
ent clause  is,  uhich,  to  say  the  least,  was  in  very  bad  taste.  The  con- 
nective is  which. 

The  subject  of  the  principal  clause  is  7;  the  predicate  is  toas  ;  and  tho 
attribute  is  guilty. 

The  subject  has  no  adjuncts ;  the  adjunct  of  the  predicate  is  the  adverbial 
plirase  (prepositional  in  fonn),  (on.)  one  day  ;  the  adjunct  of  the  at- 
tribute is  the  adverbial  phrase  of  an  action.  Of  the  latter  phrase 
action  is  the  principal  part,  and  its  adjuncts  are  an  and  the  dependent 
clause. 

The  subject  of  the  dependent  clause  is  which  ;  the  predicate  is  was ;  and 
the  attribute,  the  adjective  phrase  in  very  bad  taste. 

Neither  has  any  adjuncts ;  the  principal  part  of  the  attribute  phrase  is 
taste ;  lad  being  its  primary,  and  very  its  secondary  adjunct. 

To  say  the  least  is  an  independent  phrase  of  the  infinitive  form.  The  prin- 
cipal part  is  to  say,  and  its  adjunct,  the  object  least,  modified  by  the. 

They  being  absent,  we  cannot  come  to  a  determination. 

There  being  much  obscurity  in  the  case,  he  refuses  to  decide 
upon  it. 

To  be  plain  with  you,  your  conduct  is  very  much  to  bo 
censured. 

Fathers  !  Senators  of  Rome  !  the  arbiters  of  nations  !  to  you 
I  fly  for  refuge. 

The  baptism  of  John  ;  was  it  from  heaven,  or  of  men  ? 

Generally  speaking,  the  life  of  all  truly  great  men  has  been 
a  life  of  intense  and  incessant  labor. 

To  give  one  instance  more,  and  then  I  will  have  done  with 
this  rambling  discourse. — Hazlitt. 

The  great  utility  of  knowledge  and  religion  being  thus  appa- 
rent, it  is  highly  incumbent  upon  us  to  pay  a  studious  attention 
to  them  in  our  youth. 

A  shoe  coming  loose  from  the  fore-foot  of  the  thill-horse,  at 
the  beginning  of  the  ascent  of  Mount  Taurina,  the  postillion 


CHAP.  I.]      SYNTAX. — ANALYSIS  AND   PARSING.  185 

dismounted,  twisted  the  shoe  off,  and  put  it  in  his  pocket. — 

Want,  and  incurable  disease,  (fell  pair !) 
On  hopeless  multitudes  remorseless  seize 
At  once ;  and  make  a  refuge  of  the  grave. 

Soldier,  rest!  thy  warfare  o'er. 

Sleep  the  sleep  that  knows  not  breaking  : 
>  Dream  of  battle-fields  no  more. 

Days  of  danger,  nights  of  waking. 

EXERCISE  VIII.— THE  SUBJECT  CLAUSE. 

EXAMPLE    ANALYZED. 

"That  it  is  our  duty  to  obey  the  laws  of  the  country  in 
which  we  live,  does  not  admit  of  question." 

Analysis. — This  is  a  complex  declarative  sentence. 
The  subject  is  the  dependent  clause,  That  it  is  our  duty  to  obey  the  laws  oj 
the  country  in  which  we  live  ;  the  predicate  is  does  admit.     That  is  the 
connective. 
The  adjuncts  of  the  predicate  are  rvot  and  the  phrase  of  question. 
Tlie  subject  of  the  dependent  clause  is  it ;  the  predicate  is  is  ;  and  the  at- 
tribute is  duty. 
The  adjunct  of  the  subject  is  the  complex  explanatory  phrase,  to  obey  the 
laws  of  the  country  in  which  we  live  ;  the  adjunct  of  the  attribute  is  our. 
The  principal  part  of  the  explanatory  phrase  is  to  ohey,  which  is  modified 
by  the  object  laws,  the  adjuncts  of  which  are  the  and  the  complex 
phrase,  of  the  country  in  which  tee  live.     The  principal  part  of  this 
phrase  is  country,  and  its  adjuncts  arc  the  and  the   Simple   adjective 
clause,  in  which  ive  live.    The  subject  of  the  clause  is  we ;  the  predicate 
is  line,  which  is  modified  by  the  simple  adverbial  phrase  in  which. 
Obs. — It  will  be  perceived  from  the  example  given  in  this  exercise,  that 
«  complex  sentence  may  be  analyzed  by  treating  it  as  a  wnole,  pointing  out 
the  subject,  predicate,  etc.,  and  analyzing  the  dependent  clause  m  its  proper 
place,  as  one  of  the  principal  parts,  or  an  adjunct  to  either  ;  instead  of  di- 
viding tlie  sentence  immediately  into  the  principal  and  dependent  clauses, 
explaining  their  connection,  and  then  analyzing  them  separately,  as  in  the 
previous  exercises.     The  latter  method  is  preferable  for  beginners,  but  for 
advanced  scholars  should  give  place  to  the  other,  which  is  more  logical,  and 
easier  for  intricate  sentences. 

That  the  government  of  our  desires  is  essential  to  the  enjoy- 
ment of  true  liberty,  is  a  truth  never  to  be  forgotten. 

That  it  is  glorious  to  die  for  one's  country,  is  a  sentiment 
uniformly  cherished  by  all  good  men. 

At  what  period  the  poems  of  Homer  were  composed,  has 
not  been  positively  ascertained. 

Who  was  the  author  of  the  Letters  of  Phalaris,  has  been 
the  subject  of  very  ingenious  and  learned  discussion. 

That  an  author's  work  is  the  mirror  of  his  mind,  is  a  posiiioa 
that  has  led  to  very  falsa  conclusions. 


136  INSTITUTES  OF  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR.      [PART  III. 

Why  a  man  with  so  excellent  an  education,  and  surrounded 
■with  so  many  inducements  to  a  virtuous  life,  should  have  fallen 
into  habits  of  vice  and  dissipation,  is  inexplicable. 

That  truth  finally  must  prevail  over  error,  and  virtue  bo 
triumphant  in  a  struggle  Avith  vice,  are  highly  cherished  senti- 
ments among  mankind.    , 

How  he  was  to  extricate  his  army  from  so  dangerous  a  posi 
tion,  baffled  all  conjecture. 

Whether  Columbus  was  the  first  discoverer  of  America  or 
not,  is  a  (question  among  historians. 

EXERCISE  IX.— THE  OBJECT  CLAUSE. 

EXAMPLE    ANALYZED. 

"Children  should  know  that  it  is  their  duty  to  honor  their 
parents,  to  ask  advice  of  them,  and  to  observe  their  wishes." 

Analysis. — This  is  a  complex  declarative  sentence. 

The  subject  is  cMldren, ;  the  predicate  is  should  know  ;  the  object  is  tho 
dependent  chaise,  That  it  is  their  duty,  &c.     That  is  the  connective. 

The  subject  of  the  dependent  clause  is  it ;  the  predicate  is  is  ;  the  attri- 
bute is  duty. 

The  adjuncts  of  the  subject  are  the  explanatory  phrases,  to  honor  their  pa- 
rente,  to  ask  advice  of  them,  and  to  oiserve  their  wishes. 

He  knew  that  solicitations  or  remonstrances  would  avail 
little  with  the  companions  of  his  enterprise. 

Those  who  are  skilled  in  the  extraction  and  preparation  of 
metals,  declare  that  iron  is  evervwhere  to  be  found. 

Columbus  felt  that  there  was  a  continent  to  be  discovered  ; 
and  he  discovered  it. 

The  authors  of  the  American  Revolution  believed  that  they 
were  in  the  service  of  their  own,  and  of  all  future  generations. 

It  is  interesting  to  notice  how  some  minds  seem  almost  to 
create  themselves,  springing  up  under  every  disadvantage, 
and  working  their  solitary  but  irresistible  way  through  a  thou- 
sand obstacles. 

Any  man  who  attends  to  what  passes  within  himself,  may 
easily  discern  that  the  human  character  is  a  very  complicated 
system. 

How  can  he  exalt  his  thoughts  to  any  thing  great  or  noble, 
who  only  believes  that,  after  a  short  term  on  this  stage  of  ex- 
istence, he  is  to  sink  into  oblivion,  and  to  lose  his  consciousness 
forever  ? 

See,  Aspasio,  how  all  is  calculated  to  administer  the  highest 
delight  to  mankind. 

The  majority  of  the  assembly  wisely  considered  that  to  de- 


CHAP.  I.]      SYNTAX. — ANALYSIS  AND   PARSING.  137 

cline  a  cessation,  would   be   to  refute  all   their  professions  of 
loyalty. 

llaply  sonic  lioiiry-li ended  swain  may  say, 
"  Oft  have  we  seen  liini  at  the  peep  of  dawn, 

Brushing,  with  hasty  steps,  the  dews  away. 
To  meet  the  sun  upon  the  upland  lawn." 

EXERCISE  X.— THE  OBJECT  CLAUSE. 

INFINITIVE    FORM. 

Obs.  1. — Tn  the  infinitive  form  of  this  clause,  th,c  snhject  and  predlfiitc 
are  t'ouaccLed  indirectly.  Tbo  predicate,  instead  of  being  a  finite  verb,  is  a 
verb  ill  the  infinitive  mood,  and  its  snbjeet  is  in  the  ohjoctive  case.  Thus, 
in  the  sentence,  "  He  commanded  the  army  to  march,"  urmi/  is  the  subject, 
and  to  march.,  the  predicate  ;  because  it  is  indicated  (althougli  indirectly) 
tliat  the  act  of  marching  is  performed  by  the  agent  army.,  the  sentence  being 
equivalent  to,  "  He  commanded  tliat  the  army  should  march." 

Obs.  2. — Tlie  infinitive  clause  is  also  sometimes  used  as  the  subject  of  a 
fcntencc,  and  occasionally  as  an  explanatory  adjunct ;  as,  "  For  us  to  learn  to 
die,  is  the  great  business  of  life." — "  It  is  the  i^rcat  business  of  life,  for  us 
to  leani  to  die.''''     [See  Exception  2,  Eule  XVII. J 

EXAMPLE    ANALYZED. 

"Let  the  child  learn  what  is  appropriate  for  liis  years." 

Analysis. — This  is  a  complex  imperative  sentence.  The  subject  is  thou 
(understood)  ;  the  predicate  is  let ;  the  object  is  the  infinitive  clause, 
the  child  learn,  &c. 

The  subject  of  the  dependent  clause  is  child  ;  the  predicate  is  (to)  leurn  ; 
the  object  is  that  (comprehended  in  the  double  relative  ivhdt,  equiva- 
lent to  that  which.) 

The  adjunct  of  the  subject  is  the  j  the  adjunct  of  tlie  object  is  the  simple 
adjective  clause  which  is  aj^propriate for  his  years. 

Tiio  subject  of  this  claiise  is  which  ;  the  predicate,  is  ;  the  attribute,  ap  ■ 
propriate,  modified  by  the  simple  adverhial  iAi\:a.?><i,  for  Jiis  years. 

TJiou  think'st  it  folly  to  be  wise  too  soon. 

In  this  melanctioly  state,  he  commanded  messengers  to  recall 
I  lis  eldest  son,  Abouzaid,  from  the  army. 

Graves  describes  the  steps  by  which  Shenstonc  made  the 
LeMsowcs  become  what  it  at  last  was. 

Let  us  all,  in  our  mourning  attire,  and  accompanied  by  our 
c'liidren,  go  and  entreat  Veturia,  the  mother  of  Coriolanus,  to 
intercede  with  her  son  for  our  common  country. 

Madam  Boland  heard  herself  sentenced  to  death  with  the 
air  of  one  who  saw  in  her  condemnation  merely  her  title  to 
immortahty. 

Goldsmith  said  to  Johnson  very  wittily  and  very  justly,  "  If 
you  were  to  write  a  fable  about  little  fishes,  doctor,  you  would 
make  the  little  fishes  talk  like  whales." 

12* 


188  INSTITUTES  OF  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR.      [PART  IIL 

The  fact  of  Shenstonc's  having  "written  the  School-mistress" 
and  the  "  Pastoral  Ballad,"  alone  entitles  him  to  bo  ranked 
amongst  the  classical  poets  of  English  literature. 

The  curiosity  of  the  Caliph  being  awakened  to  know  the 
cause  of  his  despair,  he  ordered  Mezrour  to  knock  at  the  door, 
which  being  opened,  they  pleaded  the  privilege  of  strangers  to 
enter  for  rest  and  refreshment. 

See  some  strange  comfort  every  state  attend, 
And  pride  bestow'd  on  all,  a  common  friend  : 
Sec  some  fit  passion  every  age  supply ; 
Hope  travels  through,  nor  quits  us  when  we  die. 
On  what  foundation  stands  the  Avarrior's  pride, 
How  just  his  hopes,  let  Swedish  Charles  decide. 

EXERCISE  X.~THE  ATTRIBUTE  CLAUSE. 

EXAMPLE    ANALYZED. 

"  The  truth  is,  that  the  most  elaborate  and  manifold  apparatus 

of  instruction  can  impart  nothing  of  importance  to  the  passive 

and  inert  mind." 

Analysis. — This  is  a  complex  declarative  sentence.  Tbe  subject  is  truih  ; 
the  predicate  is  is ;  the  attribute  is  tlie  dependent  clause.  The  most 
elaborate  and  manifold  apparatus,  &c.  Tlie  connective  is  that. 
The  subject  of  the  dependent  clause  is  apparatus ;  the  predicate  is  can 
impart ;  the  object  is  nothing.  The  adjuncts  of  the  subject  are  the, 
elaborate,  manifold,  and  of  instrtiction  ;  most  is  an  adjunct  oi  elaborate 
and  manifold;  the  adjunct  of  the  predicate  is  the  adverbial  phrase 
to  the  passive  and  inert  inind  :  the  principal  part  of  wbich  is  mind, 
and  its  adjuncts  the,  and  passive  and  inert ;  the  adjunct  of  the  object 
is  the  simple  adjective  phrase,  of  importance. 

The  crying  sin  of  all  governments  is,  that  they  meddle  inju- 
riously with  human  afi'airs,  and  obstruct  the  processes  of  nature 
by  excessive  legislation. 

One  of  the  most  useful  effects  of  action  is,  that  it  renders 
repose  agreeable. 

The  only  advantage  which,  in  the  voyage  of  life,  the  cau- 
tious had  above  the  negligent,  was,  that  they  sunk  later,  and 
more  suddenly. 

The  characteristic  peculiarity  of  the  "  Pilgrim's  Progress"  is, 
that  it  is  the  only  work  of  its  kind  which  possesses  a  strong 
human  interest. 

The  proper  end  of  instruction  is,  not  that  the  scholar  should 
be  able  to  repeat  the  thoughts  of  others,  but  that  ho  should 
have  the  power  to  think  correctly  for  himself. 

The  physician's  directions  were,  that  the  patient  should 
travel  to  the  South,  that  he  should  avoid  excitement,  and  thaA 
he  should  be  careful  in  diet. 


CHAP.  I.]      SYNTAX. — ANALYSIS  AND  PARSING.  189 


EXERCISE  XI.— THE  ADJECTIVE  CLAUSE. 

EXAMPLE    ANALYZED. 

"  Whoever  yields  to  temptation,  debases  himself  with  a  de« 
basement  from  which  he  can  never  arise." 

Analysis. — Tliis  is  a  complex  declarative  sentence. 

The  subject  is  lie  (comprehended  in  the  double  relative  wAoewr);  the 
predicate  is  debases  ;  the  object  is  himself. 

The  adjunct  of  the  subject  is  the  simple  adjective  clause,  lolio  yields  to 
temptation;  the  adjunct  of  the  predicate  is  the  complex  phrase,  ivith  a 
debasement  from  which  he  never-  can  arise.  The  principal  part  of  the 
phrase  is  debasement,  and  its  adjuncts  are  a  and  the  simple  adjectivo 
clause, yi'owi  ivhicli  he  never  can  arise.  The  subject  of  this  clause  is  he ; 
the  predicate  is  can  arise.  The  adjuncts  of  tlie  predicate  arc  never., 
and  the  simple  adverbial  phrase, //-owi  which. 

The  chief  misfortunes  that  befall  us  in  life,  can  be  traced  to 
some  vices  and  follies  which  wo  have  committed. 

Every  society  has  a  right  to  prescribe  for  itself  the  terms  on 
which  its  members  shall  be  admitted. 

There  is  no  foimdation  for  the  popular  doctiine,  that  a 
state  may  flourish  by  arts  and  crimes. 

It  is  necessary  to  combat  vigilantly  that  favorite  idea  of 
lively  ignorance,  that  study  is  an  enemy  to  originality. 

Most  of  the  troubles  which  we  meet  with  in  the  world,  arise 
from  an  irritable  temper,  or  from  improper  conduct. 

Neither  his  vote,  his  influence,  nor  his  purse,  Avas  ever  with- 
held from  the  cause  in  which  he  had  enrao'cd. 

He  that  has  light  within  his  own  clear  breast. 
May  sit  in  the  centre,  and  enjoy  bright  day  ; 
But  he  that  hides  a  dark  soul  and  foul  thoughts, 
Benighted  walks  under  the  mid-day  sun. 

No  flocks  that  range  the  valley,  free, 

To  slaughter  I  condemn  ; 
Taught  by  that  power  that  pities  me, 

I  learn  to  pity  them. 


EXERCISE  XII.— THE  ADVERBIAL  CLAUSE. 

EXAMPLE    ANALYZED. 

"  Education,  when  it  works  upon  a  noble  mind,  draws  out  to 
view  many  latent  virtues  and  perfections,  which,  without  its  aid, 
would  never  be  able  to  make  their  appearance." 

Analysis. — This  is  a  compound  declarative  sentence. 
The  first  clause  is,  Education.,  when  it  works  upon  a  noble  mind,  draws  out 
to  view  many  latent  virtues  and  perfections  ;  and  tlic  second  is,   Which, 


140  INSTITUTES    OF    ENGLISH    GRAMMAE.      [PART  III. 

witTiout  its  aid,  would  never  le  ahle  to  mal:e  tTieir  appearance.  Tho 
connective  i»  which. 

The  first  is  a  complex  member  ;  the  subject  is  edvcation;  the  predicate  is 
draws  ;  the  objects  arc  virtues  i\\\(\  perfections. 

The  sulyect  has  no  iidjuncts;  the  adjuncts  of  the  predicate  arc  the  ad- 
verbial clause,  when  it  W'orls  vpon  a  nolde  mimi,  out,  and  the  simple 
adverbial  phraKc,  to  view  ;  the  adjuncts  of  the  objects  are  7nany  nn<l 
latent. 

The  subject  of  the  dependent  clause  is  il ,  the  predicate  is  woris.  Tho 
adjuacts  of  the  predicate  are  when,  ana  the  adverbial  phrase,  vpon  a 
nvlde  mind.     The  connective  is  when. 

The  subject  of  tho  second  clause  is  which  ;  the  predicate  is  icould  be  ;  the 
attribute  is  ahle. 

The  subject  has  no  adjuncts  ;  the  adjuncts  of  the  predicate  are  the  phrase, 
without  its  aid,  and  never  ;  the  adjunct  of  the  attribute  is  the  simple 
adverbial  phrase,  to  make  their  appearance,  oi  vf\n(A\  to  make  is  tlio 
principal  purt,  and  its  adjunct,  the  object  appearance,  modified  hy  their. 

"VVlien  sickness,  infirmity,  or  reverse  of  fortune,  affects  us, 
the  sincerity  of  friendship  is  proved. 

When  the  Creator  liad  finished  liis  labor  on  our  planet,  Ir's 
last  and  noblest  "work  being  man,  ho  conferred  on  him  a  part- 
nership in  his  labors. 

Loose  conversation  operates  on  the  soul,  as  poison  docs  on 
the  body. 

When  Education  hal  proceeded,  in  this  manner,  to  the  part 
of  the  mountain  where  the  declivity  began  to  gi'ow  craggy,  she 
resigned  her  charge  to  two  powers  of  superior  aspect. 

While  I  was  musing  on  this  miserable  scene,  my  protector 
called  out  to  me,  "  Remember,  Theodore,  and  be  wise,  and  let 
not  Habit  prevail  against  thee." 

AVhile  this  thought  passed  over  my  mind,  I  lost  sight  of  the 
remotest  star,  and  the  last  glimmering  of  light  Avas  quenched  in 
litter  darkness.  The  agonies  of  despair  every  moment  in- 
creased, as  every  moment  augmented  my  distance  from  tho 
last  habitable  world.  I  reflected  with  intolerable  anguish,  that, 
when  ten  thousand  thousand  years  had  carried  me  beyond  the 
reach  of  all  but  that  Power  who  fills  infinitude,  I  should  still  look 
forward  into  an  immense  abyss  of  darkness,  through  which  I 
should  still  drive  without  succor  and  without  society,  farther 
iind  farther  still,  forever  and  forever. 

Ages  elapsed  ere  Homer's  lamp  appeared, 
And  ao-es  ore  the  Hantaan  swan  was  heard. 
To  carry  nature  lengths  uidvuown  before, 
To  give  a  Milton  birth,  asked  ages  more. 

EXERCISE  Xni.— THE  EXPLANATORY  CLAUSE. 

EXAMPLE    ANALYZED. 

"  Why  is  it  that  to  man  have  been  given  passions  which  ha 
cannot  tame,  and  which  sink  him  below  the  brute  V 


CHAP.  I.]      SYNTAX. — ANALYSIS   AND   PARSING.  141 

Analysis. — This  is  n,  complex  interrogative  sentenco. 

Tlie  ^>ubject  is  U;  the  predicate  is  is;  tlie  adjunct  of  tho  subject  ia  tha 
comple.K  explanatory  clause,  to  man,  have  been  given  passions  which  he 
cannot  tame,  and  which  sink  him  helow  the  brute ;  the  connective  \s 
thai ;  the  adjunct  of  tlie  predicate  is  why. 

The  subject  of  tiio  explanatory  clause  is  pussions ;  the  predicate  is  have 
been  given.  The  adjuncts  of  the  subject  are  the  simple  adjectivo 
clauses,  vihich  he  cannot  tame,  and  umiah  sink  him  below  the  brute' 
[Each  to  be  analyzed  as  in  previous  exercises.] 

It  was  the  fate  of  Dr.  Bcntlcy,  that  every  work,  cxccuteJ  or 
projected  by  him,  should  he  assailed. 

It  is  surprising  in  what  countless  swarms  the  bees  have  over- 
gprcad  the  far  West,  within  but  a  moderate  number  of  years. 

To  tell  you  tlie  luhy  and  the  ivhercfore  would  take  too  long ; 
suffice  it  to  say,  that  they  hate  us  with  a  deadly  liatred. 

Seeing-  these,  I  at  length  comprehended  the  meaning  of  those 
terrible  words,  ''Must  we  kill  them  both?" 

It  might  be  expected,  that  humanity  itself  would  prevent 
them  from  breaking  into  the  last  retreat  of  the  unfortunate. 

It  is  an  exquisite  and  beautiful  thing  in  our  nature,  that 
when  the  heart  is  touched  and  softened  by  some  tranquil  hap- 
piness or  affectionate  feeling,  the  memory  of  the  dead  conies 
over  it  most  powerfully  and  irresistibly. 

Interesting  it  is  to  observe  how  certainly  all  deep  feelings 
agree  in  this,  that  they  seek  for  solitude,  and  are  nursed  by 
solitude. 

Is  it  because  foreigners  are  in  a  condition  to  set  our  malice 
at  defiance,  that  we  arc  willing  to  contract  engagements  of 
friendship  ? 

See !  and  confess,  one  comfort  still  must  rise  ; 
'Tis  this,  though  man's  a  fool,  yet  God  is  wise. 

Better  for  us,  perhaps,  it  might  appear, 
Were  there  all  harmony,  all  virtue  here  ; 
That  never  air  nor  ocean  felt  the  wind. 
That  never  passion  discompos'd  the  mind. 

EXERCISE  XIV.— THE  PARENTHETICAL  CLAUSE. 

EXAMPLE    ANALYZED. 

"The  virtuous  man,  it  has  been  beautifully  said,  proceeda 
Vvithout  constraint  in  the  path  of  his  duty." 

Analysis. — This  is  a  compound  declarative  sentence ;    composed  of  tha 

simple  clause,  The  virtuous  man  proceeds  without  constraint  in  the  path 

of  his  duty,  and  the  parenthetical  clause,  It  has  been  beautifully  said, 

[Let  the  pupil  analyze  each  clause  as  in  the  preceding  exorcises.  ] 

Obs. — Sentences  of  this  form  may  often  be  analyzed  by  considering  tba 

parentketioal  dauBd,  the  principal  one,  and  the  rest  of  the  eeuteuee  depend* 


142  INSTITUTES   OF  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR.       [PART  III. 

«nt  npon  it.  The  mode  of  analysis,  indicated  in  the  example,  is,  however, 
preferable  ;  as,  althougii  the  parenthetical  clause  is  united  in  construction 
■with  the  other  part  of  the  sentence,  it  is  not  necessary  to  complete  the  sense. 

How  dangerous  soever  idleness  may  be,  are  there  not  plea- 
sures, it  may  be  said,  which  attend  it  ? 

"  I  leave  my  second  son,  Andrew,"  said  the  expiring  miser, 
"my  whole  estate  ;  and  desire  him  to  be  frugal." 

"  Go  forth,"  it  had  been  said  to  Elijah,  "  and  stand  upon  the 
mount  before  the  Lord." 

"  I  think,  boys,"  said  the  schoolmaster,  when  tlie  clock 
struck  twelve,  "  that  I  shall  give  you  an  extra  half-holiday  this 
afternoon." 

"  You  remember  my  garden,  Henry,"  whispered  the  old 
man,  anxious  to  rouse  him,  for  a  dullness  seemed  gathering 
upon  the  child,  "  and  how  pleasant  it  used  to  be  in  the  evening- 
time  ?" 

"  Therefore,"  said  he,  "hath  it  in  all  confidence  been  ordered 
by  the  Commons  of  Great  Britain,  that  I  impeach  "VVarreu 
Hastings  of  high  crimes  and  misdemeanors." 

"  Oh,  no,"  said  the  Earth,  "  thou  shalt  not  lie, 
Neglected  and  lone,  on  my  lap  to  die, 
Thou  fine  and  delicate  child  of  the  sk}-." 

No  further  seek  his  merits  to  disclose, 

Or  draw  his  frailties  from  their  dread  abode, 
V,  (There  they  alike  in  trembling  hope  repose,) 

K  The  bosom  of  his  Father,  and  his  God. 

EXERCISE  XV.— COMPOUND  SENTENCES. 

Oes.  1. — In  analyzing  compound  sentences,  at  this  stage  of  the  pupil'a 
progress,  the  leading  clause  should  be  distinguished  from  the  sultordinats 
clause.  It  must,  however,  be  understood  that  tlie  dependence  of  the  latter 
upon  the  former,  is  logical^  not  grammatical,  differing  in  this  respect  alto- 
gether from  the  relation  of  the  principal  and  the  dependent  clause  of  a  com- 
plex sentence,  which  is  purely  grammatical,  since  the  latter  is  an  adjunct, 
or  used  as  one  of  the  principal  parts,  in  the  principal  clause. 

Obs.  2. — Some  clauses  are  simply  connected  without  logical  or  grammatical 
dependence.    They  muy  then  be  called  coordinate  clcm»es. 

{^W  In  the  following  examples  of  analysis,  for  the  purpose  of  abbrevia- 
tion, and  in  order  to  furnish  the  pupil  with  a  ready  metiiod  of  clearly  repre- 
senting, in  written  exercises,  the  parts  of  a  sentence  and  their  relations,  the 
compound  clauses  or  members  are  marked  by  capitals  ;  the  simple  clauses,  by 
numerals ;  and  the  phrases,  by  small  letters.  When  these  are  all  written 
out  in  the  order  in  which  they  occur,  care  being  taken  to  unite  in  brackets 
dependent  clauses  contained  in  the  same  sentence  or  member,  the  character 
and  composition  of  the  sentence  analyzed  will  be  exhibited. 

According  to  this  mode  of  representation,  a  simple  sentence  would,  of 
course,  have  no  numerical  or  literal  designation ;  1  would  indicate  a  complex 
eentence  with  a  simple  ilepcndent  clause  •  1,  2,  a  compound  sentence  con- 
eieting  of  two  simple  clauses,  but  if  enclosed  in  brackets  thus  [1,  2],  a  com- 


CHAP.  I.]      SYNTAX — ANALYSIS   AND   PARSING.  143 

pier  sentenco  containing  two  dependent  clauses ;  A,  1,  2,  B,  3, 4,  a  compound 
eentenco  composed  of  two  compound  members  ;  but  A,  [1,  2J,  B,  [3,  4J,  a 
compound  sentence  composed  of  two  complex  members,  each  containing 
two  dependent  clauses  ;  A,  1,  B,  2,  a  compound  sentence  composed  of  two 
complex  members,  each  containing  one  dependent  clause ;  A,  1,  2,  B,  3,  a 
compound  sentence  composed  of  a  compound  and  a  complex  member: 
A,  1,  B,  2,  3,  a  compound  sentence  contaming  a  complex  and  a  compound 
member  ;  A,  13,  1,  a  complex  sentence  containing  a  complex  dependent 
member,  whieli  itself  contaiusi  n  complex  dependent  member ;  and  so  on. 

This  mode  of  presenting  to  the  eye  the  general  conformation  of  a  sen- 
tence, its  members,  clauses,  etc.,  in  their  order  and,  partially,  their  depen- 
dence, will  be  found  easy  after  the  previous  practice,  and  cannot  fail  to  bo 
useful.  [In  the  forms  of  imalysis  given,  S.  stands  for  subject ;  P.,  for  predi- 
cate ;  0.,  for  object ;  Att.,  for  attribute  ;  Ad.,  for  adjunct.] 

EXAMPLES    ANALYZED. 

1.  "  Let  him  that  hastens  to  be  rich,  take  heed  lest  he  sud- 
denly become  poor." 

Analysis. — Compound  imperative  sentence  ;  consisting  of 

A.  (Leading)  Let  Mm  that  hastena  to  he  7-ich,  taica  heed  ; 

1.  {^ahoxdiwAlQ)  Be  suddealy  btcmie poor.    Connective,  Z«s<, 

A.  Complex  imperative  member. 

S.  Tlwii  (understood);  P.  let;  0.  Um  that  hastens  to  be  rich,  iaka 
heed.    (B.) 

B.  Complex  intinitive  member. 

S.  him  ;  P.  take ;  O.  heed. 

Ad.  S.  that  hastens  to  be  rich.     (2). 
2.  Simple  adjective  clause. 

S.  that ;  P.  hastens  ;  Ad.  P.  to  he  rich.     (a), 
a.  Simple  adverbial  phrase. 

Prin.  part,  to  he  ;  Ad.  t'ich  (indirect  attribute). 
1.  Simple  clause. 

S.  A(?;  P.  beco7ne  ;  Att.  poor  ;  Ad.  P.  suddenJi/. 

2.  "  Say  not  thou,  '  I  will  recompense  evil ;'  but  wait  on  the 

Lord,  aud  he  shall  save  thee." 

Akaltsis. — Compound  imperative  sentence  ;  consisting  of  two  coordinat* 
members : 

A.  Say  not  thou.,  "  I  will  recompense  evil.'''' 

B.  Wait  on  the  Lord.,  and  he  shall  save  thee.     Con.  hut. 

A.  Complex  imperative  member. 

S.  T/mi;  P.  say;  O.  I  will  recompense  evil  (1);  Ad.T.  fwt. 

1.  Simple  declarative  clause. 

S.  /;  P.  will  recomperbse ;  0.  evil. 

B.  Compound  imperative  member. 

2.  Wait  on  the  Lord. 

3.  He  shall  save  thee  ;  connective,  and. 

2.  Simple  imperative  clause. 

S.  Thou  (understood);  P.  wait;  Ad.  P.  on  the  Lord.  (a), 
a.  Simple  adverbial  phrase. 

Pria.  part,  Lord  ;  Ad.  the. 
8.  Simple  declarative  clause. 

S.  He ;  P.  shall  save  ;  0.  thee. 

If  thine  enemy  be  hungry,  give  him  bread  to  eat ;  if  he  be 
thirsty,  give  him  water  to  drink. 

If  the  mind  were  left  uncultivated,  though  not-Vung  elso 
should  find  (entrance,  vice  certainly  would. 


M'« 


144  INSTITUTES   OF   ENGLISH   GRAMMAR,       [PART   IIL 

While  riotous  indulgence  enervates  both  the  body  and  tho 
mind,  purity  and  virtue  heighten  all  the  powers  of  human 
fruition. 

If  the  King  were  present,  Cleon,  there  would  be  no  need  of 
my  answering  to  what  thou  hast  just  proposed. 

He  seems  to  have  made  an  injudicious  choice,  though  he  is 
esteemed  a  sensible  man. 

The  person  he  chanced  to  see,  was,  to  appearance,  an  ohl, 
sordid,  blind  man  ;  but,  upon  his  following  hira  from  place  to 
place,  he  at  last  found,  by  his  own  confession,  that  he  was 
Plutus,  the  god  of  riches. 

I  know  not  what  course  others  may  take,  but  as  for  me,  give 
me  liberty,  or  give  me  death. 

Let  any  one  resolve  always  to  do  right  wo?y,  leaving  then  to 
do  as  it  can,  and  if  he  were  to  live  to  the  age  of  Methuselah, 
he  would  never  do  wrong ;  but  the  common  error  is  to  resolve 
to  act  right  after  breakfast,  or  after  dinner,  or  to-morrow  morn- 
ing, or  next  time  ;  but  now,  just  now,  this  once,  we  must  go  ou 
tho  same  as  ever. 

It  seems  easier  to  do  right  to-morrow  than  to-day,  merely 
because  we  forget,  that  when  to-morrow  comes,  tli-ea  will  bo  «om»» 

The  lamb  thy  riot  dooms  to  bleed  to-day. 
Had  he  thy  reason,  would  he  skip  and  play  » 

Inspiring  thought  of  rapture  yet  to  be ! 
The  tears  of  love  were  hopeless  but  for  thee ! 
If  in  that  frame  no  deathless  spirit  dwell, 
If  that  faint  murmur  be  the  last  farewell, 
If  fate  unite  the  faithful  but  to  part, 
Why  is  their  memory  sacred  to  the  heart  ? 

EXERCISE  XVI.— MISCELLANEOUS  SENTENCES. 

EXAMPLES    ANALYZED. 

1.  "  Rasselas  could  not  catch  the  fugitives,  with  his  utmost 
efforts  ;  but,  resolving  to  weary,  by  perseverance,  him  whom  ha 
eould  not  surpass  in  speed,  he  pressed  on  till  tho  foot  of  the 
mountain  stopped  his  course." — Johnson. 

Analysis. — Compound  declarative  sentence  : 

1.  Easselas  could  not  catch  thefuc/itiiic  with  Ms  utmost  efforts  / 

A.  Resolving  to  weary  ....  course.     Connective,  bid. 
1.  SimpJe  declarative  clause. 

S,  Iia)iselas ;  P.  could  catch  ;  O.  fugitive. 

Ad.  P.  not,  with  his  utmost  efforts  (a) ;  Ad,  0,  ths, 
a.  Simple  adverbial  phrase. 

P-in.  part,  efforts  ;  Ad.  his  and  utmosU 
A.  Complex  declarative  member. 


CHAP.  I.]      SYNTAX. — ANALYSIS   AND   PARSING.  145 

S.  He  ;  P.  prei^sfd. 

Ad.  S.   renvLvinvi  to  weary,  hy  perseverance,  Jdm  ....  speed  (b) ; 

Ad.  P.  on,  and  till  the  foot  of  the  mountain  stopped  his  course  (2). 
b.  Complex  adjective  phrase. 

Prill,  part,  resolving  ;  Ad.  to  weary  ....  speed  (c). 
C.  Complex  objective  piirasc. 

Vnn.  yATl,  to  wewry ;  Ad.  him  (obj.)  and  ly  perseverance  ;   Ad.   of 
Aim,  7uhom  ....  «pf«c^  (S). 
S'  Simple  adjective  clause. 

S.  He  ;  P.  could,  surpass  ;  O.  whom  ;  Ad.  P.  not  and  w  speed. 
L  Simple  adverbial  clause. 

B.  foot ;  P.  stopped  ;  O.  course. 

All.  S.  we,  o/"  £^e  mountain  ;  Ad.  P.  iiZ? ;  Ad.  O.  Xis  ,•  Connective,  till. 

2.  "  There  is  strong  reason  to  suspect  that  some  able  Whig 
politicians,  who  thought  it  dangerous  to  relax,  at  that  moment, 
the  laws  against  political  offences,  but  who  could  not,  without 
incurring  the  charge  of  iuconsistency,  declare  themselves  ad- 
verse to  relaxation,  had  conceived  a  hope  that  they  might,  by 
fomenting  the  dispute  about  the  court  of  the  lord  high  steward, 
defer  for  at  least  a  year  the  passing  of  a  bill  which  they  dis- 
liked, and  yet  could  not  decently  oppose." — Macaulay. 

Analysis. — Complex,  declarative  sentence : 
S.  lieason ;   P.  is. 
Ad.  S.  strong/,  to  suspect  ....  oppose  ;  (a)  Ad.  P.  there. 

a.  Complex  adjective  phrase. 

Priu.  part,  to  suspect  •  Ad.  (object),  Some  able  ....  oppose  /  (A) 
Con.  that. 

A.  Complex  object  clause. 

S.  Politicians ;  P.  had  conceived ;  0.  hope. 

Ad.  S.  Some,  able,  Whia,  and  the  two  coordinate  clauses,  connected 
by  but.  Who  thougiit  ....  offences,  (B),  Who  could  .  ...  re- 
laxation (Q) ;   Ad.  O.   They  might  ....  oj)pose{'D).     Con.  that. 

B.  Complex  adjective  clause. 

S.  who  ;   P.  thought  ;  O.  It  (to  be)  dangerous  ....  offences  (1). 
1.  Simple  object  clause,  of  the  mtinitive  form. 
S.  It;  P.  to  be  (iiud.)  ;  At.  dangerous. 
Ad.  S.  to  relax  ....  offenf-es,  (b) 

b.  Complex  explanatory  phrase. 

Prin.  part,  ta  relax;  Ad.  (primary),  at  that  moment,  (c)  and  lavs ; 
(Secondary),  the,  and  agcunst  political  offences,  (d) 

C.  Simple  adverbial  phrase. 

d.  Simple  adjective  phrase,  modifying  laws. 

C.  Complex  adjective  clause. 

S.  Who;  P.  could  declare;   O.  themselves  {to  be)  adverse  to  relaxa- 
tion (2). 
Ad.  P.  not,  without  incuri-ing  the  charge  of  inconsistency  (e). 
«.  Complex  adverbial  phrase. 

Prin.  part,  incurring ;  Ad.  (primary),  charge ;  (secondary),  the,  and 
of  inconsistency. 
S.  Simple  object  clause,  infinitive  form. 

S.  themsehes ;  P.  to  be  (und.) ;  Att.  adverse  ;    Ad.  Att.  to  relaxation. 

D.  Complex  adjective  clause. 

S.  they  ;  P.  mi/jht  defer  ;  0.  passing. 

Ad.  P.  hi/ fomenting  ....  steward  (f ),  for  at  least  a  year  (g) ; 
Ad.  0.  the,  and  of  a  bill  which  ....  oppose  (h). 
£   Complex  adverbial  phrase. 

Vrm.  v^rt,  fomenting ;  Ad.  (priniary),  dispute,  (secondary),  ih*,  and 
about  ....  steimrd  (i).  '  ' 


146  INSTITUTES   OF  ENGLISH  GRAMMAK.      [PART  rii. 

L   Complex  adjective  phrase. 

Pri0.  part,  court  ;  Ad.  the,  and  of  the  lord  high  steward  (k). 
k.  Simple  adjective  phrase. 
go  Simple  adverbial  phrase. 

Prin.  part,  year  ;  Ad.  a.    At  least,  independent  phrase. 
h.  Complex  adjective  phrase. 

Prin.  part,  hill ;  Ad.  a,  and  ^vhich  ....  oppose  (3). 
S.  Simple  adjective  clause,  Tvith  a  compound  predicate. 

S.  thet/ ;  P.  (compound),  disliked,  and  could  oppose;   Con.  antk*  0« 
luhich. 

Ad.  p.  (second),  not  and  decently. 

8.  "What  wonder,  when 

Millions  of  fierce  encount'ring  Angels  fought 
On  either  side,  the  least  of  whom  could  wield 
These  elements,  and  arm  him  with  the  force 
Of  all  their  regions  ?     How  much  more  of  pow'r 
Army  'gainst  army  numberless,  to  raise 
Dreadful  combustion  warring,  and  disturb, 
Though  not  destroy,  their  happy  native  seat ; 
Had  not  th'  Eternal  King  omnipotent 
From  his  strong  hold  of  Heav'n  high  over-ruled 
And  limited  their  might ;  though  number'd  such 
As  each  divided  legion  might  have  seem'd 
A  num'rous  host,  in  strength  each  armed  band 
A  legion,  led  in  fight  yet  leader  seem'd 
Each  warrior  single  as  in  chief,  expert 
When  to  advance,  or  stand,  or  turn  the  sway 
Df  battle,  open  when,  and  when  to  close 
The  ridges  of  grim  war. — Paradise  Lost,  YL,  219. 

Ajjaltsis. — ^Tho  first  period  which  tcnninates  at  regions,  is  a  compound  in- 
terrogative sentence. 

1.  What  wonder  (should  there  he)  ?  A.  When  ....  regions  /  Coo. 

when  (used  as  a  conjunction). 
1.  Simple  interrogative  clause, 
A.  Compound  declarative  member. 

2.  When  millions  ....  side  ;  3.  The  least  ....  regions  ;   Con.  whom. 
The  second  period,  comprising  the  remainder  of  the  passage,  is  a  com- 
pound exclamatory  sentence. 

1.  Hotv  ....  seat ;  A.  Had  ....  grim  war  ;   Con.  if  (understood). 

1.  Simple  exclamatory  clause. 

5.  army  ;  P.  would  have  wielded  (understood) ;    0.  power. 

Ad.  S.  nunvberless,  and  warring  against  (nuTnberless)  army ;  Ad,  O. 
to  raise  dreadful  combustion,  and  disturb,  though  not  destroy  ihmf 
happy  native  seat. 

A.  Compound  member. 

2.  Had  ....  might ;  B.  Though  ....  war  ;  Con.  though. 

2.  Simple  clause,  with  a  componnd  predicate. 

B.  Compound  declarative  member. 

3.  (They  ivere)  n>/mber'd  such  ; 

C.  Each  divided  legion  ....  war  /  Con.  as  (for  thU), 
8.  Simple  declurative  clause. 
C  Compound  declarative  membeK 

4.  Each  divided  legion  ....  host  f 

6.  In  strength  ....  legion, ; 


CHAP.  I.]      SYNTAX. — ANALYSIS  AND   PARSING.  147 

D.  Led  in  fight  ....  war.    No  connective. 
4.  5.  Simple  decliirntivo  clauses. 
D.  Compound  delarative  member. 

6.  £dch  siiKjle  warrior  see?ned  as  a  leader  in  chief,  expert  ....  war  J 

7.  (He  was)  led  infigld.    Connectives  (correspond.),  though  and  yet, 
6.     Simple  declarative  member. 

S.  Warrior;  T.  seemed;  Att.  Ze«(fer  (connected  to  tbe  subject  by  n-s). 
Ad.  a.  e-ach,  single;  Ad.  Att.  a,  in  chief,  and  expert ;  Ad.  of  expert, 
When  to  advance  ....  war  (a). 
a.  Compound  adverbial  phrase. 

b.  When  to  advance  ;  c.  when  to  stand;  d.  when  to  turn  the  sway  of 
battle;  e.  when  to  open  and  when  to  close  the  ridges  of  grim  ivar. 


[Let  the  pupil  he  required  to  analyze  and  2^orse  oralhj, 
according  to  the  Praxis,  the  sentences  in  the  following  para- 
graphs, or  to  prepinre  a  loritten  analysis  of  each,  according  to 
the  method,  indicated  in  the  examjiles,  and  explained  in  ths 
Itemaj-k  on  page  142.] 

1.  Let  the  ambitions,  -whether  soldiers,  tribunes,  or  tings, 
reflect,  that  if  there  arc  mercenary  soldiers  to  serve  thera,  and 
flatterers  to  excuse  tliem  Avhile  they  reign,  there  is  the  con- 
Bcience  of  humanity  afterwards  to  judge  them,  and  pity  to  de- 
test them. — Lamartine. 

2.  Some,  in  their  discourse,  desire  rather  commendation  of 
■wit,  in  being  able  to  hold  all.  arguments,  than  of  judgment  in 
discerning  what  is  true ;  as  if  it  were  a  praise  to  know  what 
might  be  said,  and  not  what  should  be  thought. — Bacon. 

3.  If  all  the  means  of  education  which  are  scattered  over 
the  world,  and  if  all  the  philosophers  and  teachers  of  ancient 
and  modern  times,  were  to  be  collected  together,  and  made  to 
bring  their  combined  cftorts  to  bear  upon  an  individual,  all 
they  could  do  would  be  to  afford  the  opportunity  of  improve- 
ment.— Degerando. 

4.  Dreams  are  the  briglit  creatures  of  poem  and  legend,  Avho 
sport  on  earth  in  the  night-season,  and  melt  away  in  the  first 
beams  of  the  sun,  Avhich  lights  grim  Care  and  stern  Reality  in 
tlieir  daily  pilgrimage  through  the  world. — Dickens. 

6.  Montaigne  saith  prettily,  when  he  inquired  the  reason, 
why  the  word  of  the  lie  should  be  such  a  disgrace  and  such  au 
odious  charge.  Saith  he,  "  If  it  bo  well  weighed,  to  say  that  a 
man  licth,  is  as  much  to  say,  as  that  he  is  brave  towards  God, 
and  a  coward  towards  men."— ^f/con. 

6.  Dear  sensibility  !  source  inexhausted  of  all  that  is  pre- 
cious in  our  joys,  or  costly  in  our  sorrows,  thou  chainest  thy 
martyr  down  upon  his  bed  of  straw,  and  'tis  thou  who   lift'st 


148  INSTITUTES   OF  ENGLISH  GRAMMAE.      [PART   III. 

him  up  to  Leaven  !  Eternal  fountain  of  our  feeling  !  'tis  here 
I  trace  thee,  and  this  is  thy  "  divinity  which  stirs  ivithin  me  ;" 
not  that,  in  some  sad  and  sickening  moments,  "  my  soul  shrinks 
back  upon  herself^  and  startles  at  destruction  P^  (mere  pomp 
of  words  !)  but  that  I  feel  some  generous  cares  beyond  myself. 
AH  comes  from  thee,  great — great  Sensoriutn  of  the  Avorld  ! 
which  vibrates,  if  a  hair  of  our  heads  but  falls  to  the  ground, 
in  the  remotest  desert  of  thy  creation. — Sterne. 

V.  On  the  fourtli  day  of  creation,  when  the  sun  after  a  glo- 
rious, but  solitary  course,  went  down  in  the  evening,  and  dark- 
ness began  to  gather  over  the  face  of  the  uninhabited  globe, 
already  arrayed  in  the  exuberance  of  vegetation,  and  prepared 
by  the  diversity  of  land  and  water,  for  the  abode  of  uncreated 
animals  and  man, — a  star,  single  and  beautiful,  stepped  forth 
into  the  firmament.  Trembling  with  wonder  and  delight  in 
new-found  existence,  she  looked  abroad,  and  beheld  nothing,  in 
heaven  or  on  earth,  resembling  herself.  But  she  was  not  loner 
alone ;  now  one,  then  another,  here  a  third,  there  a  fourth 
resplendent  c  mpanion  had  joined  her,  till,  light  after  light 
stealing  through  the  gloom,  iu  the  lapse  of  an  hour,  the  whole 
hemisphere  Avas  brilliantly  bespangled. — Montyomcry. 

8.  To  learn  A,  B,  C,  is  felt  to  be  extremely  irksome  by  the 
infant,  who  cannot  comprehend  what  it  is  for.  The  boy,  forced 
to  school,  cons  over  his  dull  lesson  because  he  must,  but  feels 
no  amusement  or  satisfaction  in  it.  The  labor  he  is  obliged  to 
undergo  is  not  small ;  the  privations  of  pleasure  and  activity, 
lie  regrets  still  more;  and  all  for  what?  To  learn  what  he 
does  not  like ;  to  force  into  his  mind  words  to  which  he  at- 
taches no  ideas,  or  ideas  which  appear  to  him  to  be  of  no  value  ; 
[because]  he  cannot  put  them  to  any  proper  use.  Youth  is 
not  aware,  that  not  for  present  use  is  all  this  designed.  The 
dull,  laborious,  but  necessary  routine,  like  plowing  and  sowing 
the  land,  is  in  hopes  of  reaping  abundance,  at  some  not  very 
distant  season.  Education  is  not  the  end,  but  only  the  means. 
— Taylor. 

9.  Fired  with  a  perusal  of  the  Abyssinian  pilgrim's  explora- 
tory ramblings  after  the  cradle  of  the  infant  Nilus,  we  well 
remember,  on  one  fine  summer  hoHday  (a  "  whole  day's  leave  " 
we  called  it  at  Christ's  Hospital),  sallying  forth  at  rise  of  sun, 
not  very  well  provisioned  either  for  such  an  undertaking,  to 
trace  the  current  of  the  New  River — Middletonian  stream  ! — 
to  its  scaturient  source,  as  we  had  read,  in  meadows  by  fair 
Amwell. — Lamb. 

10.  The  voice  of  the  world  had  whispered  to  Columbus  that 


CHAP.  I.]      SYNTAX. — ANALYSIS  AND   PARSING.  149 

the  world  is  one ;  and  as  he  -went  forth  toward  the  west, 
ploughing  a  Avave  which  no  European  keel  had  entered,  it  waa 
his  higli  purpose  not  merely  to  open  new  patlis  to  ishmds  or  to 
continents,  but  to  bring  together  tlie  ends  of  the  earth,  and  join 
all  nations  in  commerce  and  spiritual  life. — Bancroft. 

11.  To  a  limited  apprehension,  it  would  seem  as  if  the  greater 
part  of  the  existence  hero  allotted  lis,  were  little  more  than  an 
apprenticeship  to  the  business  of  Jiving;  and  that,  if  ever  wo 
come  to  understand  our  authentic  position  and  relations  in  tho 
world,  and  how  our  time  and  talents  might  have  been  wisely 
and  most  effectually  employed,  it  is  at  a  stage  of  life,  when  tho 
journey  is  drawing  to  a  close,  and  hardly  an  opportunity  ia 
left  us  to  turn  what  wo  have  been  learning  to  account. — R. 
Chambers. 

12.  We  never,  in  a  moral  way,  applaud  or  blame  either  our- 
selves or  others  for  what  we  enjoy  or  what  we  suffer ;  or  for 
having  impressions  made  upon  us  which  we  consider  as  being 
altogether  out  of  our  power:  but  only  for  what  we  do,  or 
would  have  done  had  it  been  in  our  power;  or  for  what  wc 
leave  undone  which  wc  might  have  done,  or  would  have  left 
undone  though  we  could  have  done  it. — i>/?.  Butler. 

13.  Resisting  or  not,  however,  wo  arc  doomed  to  suffer  a 
bitter  pang  as  often  as  the  irrecoverable  flight  of  our  time  is 
brought  homo  with  keenness  +o  our  hearts.  The  spectacle  of  a 
lady  floating  over  the  sea  boat,  and  waking  suddenly  from 
sleep  to  find  her  magnificent  ropes  pearl  necklace,  by  some 
accident  detached  at  one  from  its  fastenings,  the  loose 
string  hanging  down  into  the  water,  and  pearl  after  pearl  slip- 
ping off  forever  into  the  abyss,  brings  before  us  the  sadness  of 
the  case. — De  Quincey, 

14.  Glowing  with  a  vivid  conception  of  these  truths,  so  won- 
derful and  so  indisputable,  let  me  ask,  whether,  among  all  the 
spectacles  which  earth  presents,  and  which  angels  might  look 
down  upon  with  an  ecstasy  too  deep  for  utterance,  is  there  one 
fairer  and  more  enrapturing  to  the  siglit  than  that  of  a  young 
man,  just  fresli  from  the  Creator's  hands,  and  with  the  unspent 
encrfTics  of  tho  coming  eternity  wrapped  up  in  his  bosom,  sur- 
veying and  recounting,  in  the  solitude  of  his  closet,  or  in  the 
darkness  of  midnight,  the  mighty  gifts  with  which  he  has  been 
endowed,  and  the  mncfnificent  career  of  usefulness  and  of  bless- 
edness,  which  has  been  opened  before  lam ;  and  resolving,  with 
one  all-concentrating  and  all  hallowing  vow,  that  he  will  live, 
true  to  the  noblest  capacities  of  his  being,  and  in  obedience  to 
the  highest  law  of  his  nature  ! — Horace  Mann, 

^  13* 


160  INSTITUTES  OF   ENGLISH   GBAMMAR.      [PAET  III. 

15.  Could  every  man  apply  himself  to  [the]  employmcntg 
\Fhich  are  most  suited  to  his  capabilities,  and,  in  his  appointed 
calling,  -work  only  with  a  view  to  serviceable,  sincere,  and  en' 
nobling  results,  the  measure  of  his  achievements  might  still, 
perchance,  fall  short  of  his  original  aspirations ;  but,  being 
commensurate  Avith  his  powers,  and  conformable  to  the  eternal 
laws,  it  could  not  fail  to  yield  him  that  assurance  of  security 
and  contentment  which,  by  necessity,  proceeds  from  all  faith- 
fulness of  action. —  Chambe?-s. 

"  16.  By  the  immortal  gods,  I  wish  (pardon  me,  0  my  coun' 
try  !  for  I  fear  what  I  shall  say  out  of  a  pious  regard  for  Milo 
may  be  deemed  impiety  against  thee)  that  Clodius  not  only 
lived,  but  were  praetor,  consul,  dictator,  rather  than  [that  I 
should]  be  AvitnesG  to  such  a  scene  as  this.  Immortal  gods ! 
how  brave  a  man  is  that,  and  how  worthy  of  being  preserved 
by  you !  By  no  means,  he  erics ;  the  ruffian  met  with  the 
punishment  he  deserved;  and  let  me,  if  it  must  be  so,  suffer 
the  punishment  I  have  not  deserved. — Duncan's  Cicero. 

17.  Where  American  liberty  raised  its  first  voice,  and  where 
its  youth  was  nurtured  and  sustained,  there  it  still  lives,  in  the 
strength  of  its  manhood,  and  full  of  its  original  spirit.  If  dis- 
cord and  disunion  shall  wound  it;  if  party  strife  and  blind  am- 
bition shall  hawk  at  and  tear  it ;  if  folly  and  madness,  if  un- 
easiness under  salutary  restraint,  shall  succeed  to  separate  it 
from  that  Union,  by  which  alone  its  existence  is  made  sure,  it 
will  stand,  in  the  end,  by  the  side  of  that  cradle  in  which  its 
infancy  was  rocked;  it  will  stretch  forth  its  arm  with  what- 
ever of  vigor  it  may  still  retain,  over  the  friends  who  gathered 
around  it;  and  it  will  fall  at  last,  if  fall  it  must,  amid  the  proud- 
est monuments  of  its  glory,  and  on  the  very  spot  of  its  origin.— 
Webster. 

18.  So  live,  that  when  thy  summons  comes  to  join 
The  innumerable  caravan,  that  moves 

To  the  pale  realms  of  shade,  where  each  shall  take 

Ilis  chamber  in  the  silent  halls  of  death. 

Thou  go  not  like  the  quarry-slave  at  night. 

Scourged  to  his  dungeon,  but,  sustained  and  soothed 

By  an  unfiiltering  trust,  approach  thy  grave. 

Like  one  who  Avraps  th'    'Jrapery  of  his  couch 

About  him, and  lies  do    n  to  pleasant  dreams. — Bryant, 

19.  Of  chance  or  change,  0  let  not  man  complain, 
Else  shall  he  never,  never  cease  to  wail ; 

For,  from  the  imperial  dome,  to  where  the  swain 
Eears  the  lone  cottage  in  the  silent  dale, 


CHAP.  I.]      SYNTAX. — ANALYSIS   AND   PARSING.  151 

All  feel  til'  assaults  of  Fortune's  fickle  rale ; 
Art,  empire,  Earth  itself,  to  eh  iige  are  doom'd ; 
Earthquakes  liavc  raised  to  heaven  the  humble  vale, 
And  gulfs  the  mountain's  mighty  mass  cntomb'd  ; 
And  where  th'  Atlantic  rolls,  wide  continents  have  bloom'd. 

Beattie, 

20.  The  One  remains,  tlio  many  change  and  pass  ; 
Heavens  light  forever  shines.  Earth's  shadows  fly; 
Life,  like  a  dome  of  many-colored  glass, 

Stains  the  white  radiance  of  Eternity, 

Until  Death  tramples  it  to  fragments. — Die, 

If  thou  wouldst  be  with  that  which  thou  dost  seek  I 

Follow  where  all  is  fled ! — Rome's  azure  sky, 

Flowers,  ruins,  statues,  music, — words  are  weak 

The  glory  they  transfuse,  with  fitting  truth  to  speak. 

Shelley, 

21.  The  honey-bee,  tliat  wanders  all  day  long 

The  field,  the  woodland,  and  the  garden  o'er. 
To  irather  in  his  fra2;rant  Avintcr  store, 
Humming  in  calm  content  his  quiet  song, 
Seeks  not  alone  the  rose's  glowing  breast, 
The  lily's  dainty  cup,  the  violet's  lips; 
But  from  all  rank  and  noisome  weeds  he  sips 
The  single  drop  of  .sweetness  ever  pressed 
Withiu  the  poisoned  chalice.     Thus,  if  we 
Seek  only  to  draw  forth  the  hidden  sweet 
In  all  the  varied  human  flowers  we  meet 
In  the  wide  garden  of  humanity, 
And,  like  the  bee,  if  home  the  spoil  we  bear. 
Hived  in  our  hearts,  it  turns  to  nectar  there. 

A.  C.  Lynch. 

22.  And  Ardennes  waves  above  them  her  green  leaves, 
C)ewy  Avith  Nature's  tear-drops,  as  they  pass, 

Grieving,  if  aught  inanimate  ere  grieves. 
Over  the  unreturning  brave, — alas ! 
-    Ere  evening  to  be  trodden  like  the  grass, 

"Which  now  beneath  them,  but  above  shall  grow- 
In  its  next  verdure,  when  the  fiery  mass 
Of  living  valor,  rolling  on  the  foe. 

And  burning  with  high  hope,  shall  moulder  cold  and  loir. 

Byron. 

23.  Heaven  from  all  creatures  hides  the  book  of  fate^ 
All  but  the  page  proocribed,  their  present  state ; 


152  INSTITUTES  OF  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR.      [PAKT  IIL 

From  brutes  ■what  men,  from  men  "what  spirits  know ; 

Or  who  could  suffer  being  here  below  ? 

The  lamb  thy  riot  dooms  to  bleed  to-da\", 

Had  he  thy  reason,  woul.l  lie  skip  and  play? 

Pleas'd  to  the  last,  be  crops  the  tiowery  food, 

And  licks  the  hand  just  rais'd  to  shed  bis  blood. 

Oh  bbndness  to  the  future !  kindly  given 

That  each  may  fill  the  circle  raark'd  by  Heaven, 

Who  sees  with  equal  eye,  as  God  of  all, 

A  hero  perish,  or  a  sparrow  fall, 

Atoms  or  systems  into  ruin  hurl'd, 

And  now  a  bub'jlo  burst,  and  now  a  world. — Pope, 

24.  As  thus  the  snows  arise ;  and,  foul  and  fierce, 
All  Winter  drives  along  the  darkened  air; 
In  his  own  loose-revolving  fields,  the  swaia 
Disaster'd  stands;  sees  other  hills  ascend, 

Of  unknown  joyless  brow  ;  and  other  scenes, 

Of  horrid  prospect,  shag  the  trackless  plain; 

Nor  i-nds  the  river,  nor  the  iorest,  hid 

Beneath  the  formless  Avild  ;  but  wanders  on 

From  hill  to  dale,  still  more  and  more  astray ; 

Impatient  flouncing  through  the  drifted  heaps, 

Stung  with  the  tho  ights  of  home;  the  thoughts  of  homa 

Kush  on  his  nerves,  and  call  their  vigor  forth 

In  many  a  vain  attempt. —  Thomson. 

25.  O  treacherous  conscience !  while  she  seems  to  sleep 
On  rose  and  myitle,  lull'd  v,'ith  syren  song; 
While  she  seems,  nodding  o'er  her  charge,  to  drop 
On  headlong  appetite  the  slacken'd  reign, 

And  give  us  up  to  license,  unrecall'd, 

TJnmark'd  ; — see,  from  behind  her  secret  stand,* 

The  sly  informer  minutes  every  fault, 

And  her  dread  diary  with  liorror  fills. 

Not  the  gross  act  alone  employs  her  pen  :  • 

She  reconnoitres  fmcy's  airy  band, 

A  watchful  foe  !  the  formidable  spy, 

Listening,  o'erhears  the  whispers  of  our  camp; 

Our  dawning  purposes  of  heart  explores, 

And  steals  our  embryos  of  iniquity. —  Young. 

26.  The  pulpit,  therefore,  (and  I  name  it,  filled 
"With  solemn  awe,  that  bids  me  well  beware 
With  what  intent  I  touch  that  holy  thing.) — 

*  See  Obs.  3,  page  112. 


CHAP.  I.]      SYNTAX. — ANALYSIS   AND   PARSING.  153 

The  pulpit  (when  the  Fntirist  lirvs,  at  last, 

Strutting  and  vaporing  in  an  empty  scliooT, 

Spent  all  his  force  and  made  no  proselyte) — 

I  say  the  pulpit  (in  the  sober  use 

Of  its  legitimate,  peculiar  powers) 

Must  stand  acknowledged,  while  the  world  shall  stand, 

The  most  important  and  oftectual  guard, 

Support,  and  ornament  of  virtue's  cause. 

There  stands  the  messenger  of  truth ;  there,  stands 

The  legate  of  the  sides;  his  theme,  divine i 

His  oflice,  sacred  ;  his  credentials,  clear. 

By  him  the  violated  law  speaks  out 

Its  thunders  ;  and,  by  him,  in  strains  as  sweet 

As  angels  use,  the  Gospel  whispers  peace. —  Cowper, 

27.  Look,  as  I  blow  this  feather  from  my  face. 
And  as  the  air  blows  it  to  me  again. 
Obeying  with  my  wind  when  I  do  blow. 
And  yielding  to  another  Avhen  it  blows, 
Commanded  always  by  the  greater  gust; 
Such  is  the  lightness  of  you  common  men. 

Shakspcare» 

28.  Nature  never  did  betray 

The  heart  that  loved  her  ;  'tis  her  privilege  ^ 

Through  all  the  years  of  this  our  life,  to  lead 

From  joy  to  joy ;  for  she  can  so  inform 

The  mind  that  is  within  us,  so  impress 

AVitli  quietness  and  beauty,  and  so  feed 

AVith  lofty  thoughts,  that  neither  evil  tongues, 

Eash  judgments,  nor  the  sneers  of  selfish  men 

Shall  e'ei'prevail  against  us,  or  distrust 

Our  cheerful  faith  that  all  which  we  behold 

Is  full  of  blessings. —  Wordsworth. 

29.  0,  Adam,  one  Almighty  is,  from  whom 
All  things  proceed,  and  up  to  him  return, 
If  not  depraved  from  good,  created  all 
Such  to  perfection,  one  first  matter  all. 
Endued  with  various  forms,  various  degrees 
Of  substance,  and  in  things  that  live,  of  life; 
But  more  refined,  more  spirituous,  and  pure. 
As  nearer  to  him  placed,  or  nearer  tending 
Each  in  their  sev'ral  active  spheres  assign'd. 
Till  body  rp  to  spirit  work,  in  bounds 
Proportion'd  to  each  kind. — Milton. 

1* 


154  INSTITUTES    OF    ENG^xSH   GEAMMAR.     lPART  III. 


CHAPTER  II.— EELATIOI^   AIs^D  AGEEEJViENT. 

In  this  chapter  and  the  next,  the  Enles  of  Syntax  are 
again  exhibited,  in  their  former  order,  ^vith  Examples, 
Exceptions,  Observations,  Notes,  and  Ealse  Syntax. 
The  Notes  are  all  of  them,  in  form  and  character,  sub- 
ordinate rules  of  syntax,  designed  for  the  detection  of 
errors.  The  correction  of  the  I'alse  Syntax  placed  under 
the  rules  and  notes,  will  form  an  oral  exercise,  somewhat 
similar  to  that  of  parsing,  and  perhaps  more  useful. 

Obs. — Relation  and  Arifeement  tire  taken  tonrctlier  that  the  rules  mny  ^tand 
in  the  order  of  the  parta  of  >))eech.  The  latter  is  moreover  naturally  aliicd 
to  the  former.  Seven  of  the  ten  parts  of  speoeh  are,  with  a  few  exceptions, 
incapable  of  any  a<rreement ;  of  these,  the  reUdion  and  vse  must  be  explained 
in  parsincf ;  and  all  necesm?-!/  agretnunt  between  any  of  the  rest,  is  confined 
to  words  that  relate  to  each  other 

RULE  I.— ARTICLES. 

Articles  relate  to  the  nouns  which  they  limit :  as,  "  At 
a  little  distance  from  (lie  ruins  of  ilie  abbey,  stands  an 
ao-ed  elm." 

EXCEPTION    FIRST. 

«  The  definite  article,  used  intensively,  ma  relate  to  an  adjective  or  adwrh 
of  the  comparative  or  the  superlative  degree;  as,  "A  lanci  which  was  the 
mightiest.'''' — Byron.  "  The  farther  they  proceeded,  the  greater  appeared 
their  alacrity." — Dr.  Johnon.  "  He  chooses  it  the  rather.'''' — Cowper.  [Seo 
Obs.  7th,  next  page.] 

EXCEPTION    SEC    XD. 

The  indefinite  article  is  sometimes  used  to  give  a  collective  meaning  to  an 
adjective  of  nuTnler ;  as,  "Thou  hast  o^/ew  names,  even  in  Sardis." — Reo. 
"  There  are  a  thousand  things  which  crowd  into  my  memory." — Spectator, 
No.  468.     [See  Obs.  12th,  next  page.] 

OBSERVATIONS    ON   RULE   I. 

Obs.  1. — Articles  often  relate  to  nouns  vnderstood ;  as,  "The  [river'] 
Thames," — "Pliny  the  younger"  [man], — "The  honourable  [bodm,  tho 
Legislature," — "The  animal  [world]  and  the  vegetable  world," — "Neither 
to  the  right  [hand]  nor  to  tho  left"  [hand]. — JBi/de.  "  He  was  a  good  man, 
and  a  just"  [man]. — Ih.  "  The  pride  of  swains  Palemon  was,  the  generous 
[man],  and  the  rich"  [man]. — Tliomson. 

Obs.  2. — It  is  not  always  necessary  to  repeat  the  article  before  several  nouns 
in  the  same  construction  :  the  same  article  serves  sometimes  to  limit  the  sig- 
nification of  more  than  one  noun  ;  but  we  doubt  the  propriety  of  ever  con- 
Btruing  two  articles  as  relating  to  one  and  the  same  noun. 

Obs.  3.— The  article  precedes  its  noun,  and  is  never,  by  itself,  placed  after 
it;  as,  "Passion  is  <Ae  drunkenness  o'^ the  mind." — Sauthev. 

Obs._4.-— When  an  adjective  precedes  the  noun,  the  article  is  placed  before 
ttie  adjective,  that  its  power  may  extend  over  that  also  ;  as, 
"  77(6  private  path,  (he  secret  acts  of  men, 
if  uoble,  far  the  noblest  of  their  lives."— r»iwi^. 


CHAP.  II.]         SYNTAX.— RULE   I.— ARTICLES.  155 

Except  the  adjectives  all,  such,  many,  what,  both,  and  tliose  which  are  pre- 
ceded by  the  adverbs  too,  so,  as,  or  how  ;  as,  "  All  the  material3  were  bonj^ht 
nt  too  dear  a  rate." — "  Like  many  an  other  poor  wretch,  I  now  suffer  all  thi 
ill  consequences  oi sofoolixh  an  indulgence." 

Ocs.  5. — When  the  adjective  is  placed  after  the  noun,  the  article  generally 
retains  its  place  before  the  noun,  and  is  nt>t  repeated  before  the  adjective ; 
as,  'M  man  ignorant  of  astronomy," — "  77/e  primrose  pale."  In  Greek,  when 
an  adjective  is  placed  after  its  noun,  if  the  article  is  prefixed  to  the  noun,  it 
is  repeated  before  the  adjective;  as,  'II  irtfAij  ij  jxeyaXn,  The  city  t?ie  great ;  i.e., 
The  great  city. 

Obs.  G. — Articles,  according  to  their  own  definition,  belong  before  their 
nouns ;  but  the  definite  article  and  an  adjective  seem  sometimes  to  be  placed 
after  the  noun  to  which  they  both  relate :  as,  "  Section  the  Fourth." — "  Henry 
<7ie  Eighth."  Sucli  examples,  however,  may  be  supposed  elliptical;  and,  if 
they  are  so,  the  article,  in  English,  can  never  be  placed  after  its  noun,  nor 
can  two  articles  ever  properly  relate  to  one  noun,  iu  any  particular  construc- 
tion of  it. 

Obs.  7.— The  definite  article  is  often  prefixed  to  comparatives  and  superior- 
tives;  and  its  effect  is,  as  J/;«vv7y  observes,  (in  the  words  of  Lowth^  "to 
mark  the  degree  the  more  strongly,  and  to  define  it  the  more  precisely :"  as, 
"  The  oftener  I  see  him,  the  more  I  respect  him." — "  A  constitution  the  most 
fit." — "A  claim,  the  strongest,  and  the  most  easily  comprehended." — "  Tho 
men  the  most  difficult  to  be  replaced."  In  these  instances,  the  article  seems 
to  be  used  adverbially,  and  to  relate  only  to  tiie  adjective  or  adverb  following 
it;  but  after  the  adjective,  the  noun  may  he  supplied. 

Obs.  8. — The  article  the  is  applied  to  nouns  of  both  numbers ;  as,  7%eman, 
the  men ; — The  good  boy,  the  good  boys. 

Ous.  9. — The  article  the  is  generally  prefixed  to  adjectives  that  are  used,  by 
ellipsis,  as  nouns ;  as, 

"  Tlie  great,  the  gay,  shall  they  partake 
The  heav'n  that  thou  alone  canst  make  ?" — Cowper. 

Obs.  10. — The  article  the  is  sometimes  elegantly  used  in  stead  of  a  possess- 
ive pronoun ;  as,  "  Men  who  have  not  bowed  the  knee  to  tho  image  of 
Baal." — Rcnn.,  xi,  4. 

Obs.  n. — An  or  a  implies  one,  and  belongs  to  nouns  of  the  singular  num- 
ber only;  as,  A  man,  a  good  boy. 

Obs.  12. — An  or  a  is  sometimes  put  before  an  adjective  of  number,  when 
the  noun  following  is  plural;  as,  "^  few  days," — "^1  hundred  sheep," — 
"There  are  a  great  many  adjectives." — Dr.  Adam.  In  these  cases,  the  arti- 
cle seems  to  relate  only  to  the  adjective.  Some  grammarians  however  call 
these  words  of  number  nouns,  and  suppose  an  ellipsis  of  the  preposition  of. 
Murray  and  many  others  call  them  adjectivt^,  and  suppose  a  peculiarity  of 
construction  iu  the  article. 

Obs.  is. — An  or  a  has  sometimes  the  import  of  each  or  every  ;  as,  "  Ho 
came  twice  a  year."  The  article  in  this  sense  v/ith  a  preposition  understood, 
is  preferable  to  the  mercantile  per,  so  frequently  used  ;  as,  "  Fifty  cents  [for] 
a  bushel," — rather  than,  ^^ per  bushel." 

Obs.  14. — A,  as  prefixed  to  participles  in  ina,  or  iised  in  composition,  is  a 
preposition ;  being,  probably,  the  French  a,  si^uifying  to,  at,  on,  tn,  or  of;  as, 
"  They  burst  out  a  laughing." — M.  Edgcworth.  ''  He  is  gone  a  hunting." — 
"  She  lies  a-bed  all  day." — "He  stays  out  a-nights." — "They  ride  out  o- 
Sundays."  Shalcspeare  often  uses  the  prefix  a,  and  sometimes  iu  a  manner 
peculiar  to  himself ;  as,  "  Tom's  a  cold," — "  a  weary." 

Obs.  15. — An  is  sometimes  a  conjunction,  signifying  if ;  as, 

"  Nay,  an  thou'lt  mouthe,  I'll  rant  as  well  as  thou." — Shah, 
NOTES    TO    RULE    I. 

Note  I. — When  the  indefinite  article  is  required,  a  should 
always  be  used  before  the  sound  of  a  consonant^  and  an,  before 


156  INSTITUTES  OF  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.     [PART  III. 

that  of  a  vowel ;  as,  "  With  the  talents  of  an  angel,  a  man 
may  be  a  fool." — Young. 

Obs.— ^/iwas  formerly  used  before  all -words  beginning  with  A,  and  before 
Beveral  otlier  words  which  are  nnv.-  pronounced  in  such  a  manner  as  to  re- 
quire a;  thus,  we  read  in  the  Bible,  "■An  house,"— "aw.  hundred,"— " an, 
cue," — '■'■an  ewer," — "  an  usurer." 

Note  II. — When  nouns  are  joined  in  construction,  without 
a  close  connexion  and  common  dependence,  the  article  must 
he  repeated.  The  following  sentence  is  therefore  inaccurate : 
"  She  never  considered  the  quality,  but  merit  of  her  visitors." 
—  Wm.  Penn.     The  should  be  inserted  before  merit. 

Note  III, — When  adjectives  are  connected,  and  the  quali- 
ties belong  to  things  individually  different,  though  of  the  same 
name,  the  article  should  be  repeated:  as,  "^1  black  and  a 
■white  horse ;" — i.  c.,  two  horses,  one  black  and  the  other  white. 

Note  IV. — When  adjectives  are  connected,  and  the  qualities 
all  belong  to  the  same  thing  or  things,  the  article  should  not 
be  repeated :  as,  "^1  black  and  white  horse ;" — i.  e.,  one  horse, 
piebald. 

Obs.  1.— The  reason  of  the  two  preceding  notes  is  this :  by  a  repetition  of 
the  article  before  several  adjectives  in  the  same  construction,  a  repetition  of 
the  noun  is  implied ;  but  witliout  a  repetition  of  the  article,  the  adjectives 
are  confined  to  one  and  the  same  noun. 

Obs.  2. — To  avoid  repetition,  we  sometimes,  with  one  article,  join  incon- 
Bistent  quahties  to  n  plural  nonn;  as,  "The  Old  and  New  Testaments,"— 
for,  "  TAe  Old  and  the  New  Testament."  But  the  phrases,  "  The  Old  and 
New  Teslament,''  and,  "  The  Old  and  the  New  Testaments  "  are  both  obvi- 
ously incorrect. 

Note  V. — -The  article  should  not  be  used  before  the  names 
of  virtues,  vices,  passions,  arts,  or  sciences ;  before  simple 
proper  names ;  or  before  any  noun  whose  signification  is  suf- 
ficiently definite  without  it :  as,  ''Falsehood  is  odious." — "/ro?i 
is  useful." — '■•Beauty  is  vain." 

Note  VI. — When  titles  are  mentioned  merely  as  titles,  or 
names  of  things  merely  as  names  or  words,  the  article  should 
not  be  used ;  as,  "  He  is  styled  Marquis''' — "  Ought  a  teacher 
to  c?.ll  his  pupil  Master  f 

Note  VII. — In  expressing  a  comparison,  if  both  nouns  refer 
to  the  same  subject,  the  article  should  not  be  inserted;  if  to 
different  subjects,  it  should  not  be  omitted:  thus,  if  we  say, 
"He  is  a  better  teacher  than  poet,"  we  compare  difierent 
qualifications  of  the  same  man  ;  but  if  we  say,  "  He  is  a  better 
teacher  than  a  poet,"  we  ref^r  to  different  men. 

Note  VIII. — The  definite  article,  or  some  other  definitive, 
is  generally  required  before  the  antecedent  to  the  pronoun  who 
or  which  in  a  restrictive  clause  j  as,  "7%e  men  who  were  pres- 
eat,  consented," 


CHAP.  II.]  SYNTAX.— RULE   I.— ARTICLES.  157 

NoTK  IX. — The  article  is  generally  required  In  that  con- 
struction which  converts  a  participle  into  a  verbal  noun;  as, 
'■'■The  completing  of  this,  by  the  working-out  of  sin  inherent, 
must  be  by  the  power  and  spirit  of  Christ,  in  (he  heart." — . 
Win.  Penn.  "  They  shall  be  a?i  abhorring  unto  all  flesh," — ■ 
Isaiah,  Ixvi,  24. 

Note  X. — The  article  should  not  be  prefixed  to  a  participle 
that  is  not  taken  in  all  respects  as  a  noun ;  as,  "  He  made  a 
mistake  in  the  giving  out  the  text."     Expunge  the. 

FALSE    SYNTAX   UNDER   RULE   I.^ — ARTICLES. 

(0?~  [The  Examples  of  False  Syntax  placed  under  the  rviles,  are  to  be  corrected 
orally  by  the  pupil,  according  to  (lie  fonnulcs  given,  or  according  to  others  framed  In 
like  manner,  and  adapted  to  the  several  notes.] 

Examples  under  Note  1. — AN  or  A. 
He  went  into  an  house. 

[FoRMtTLE. — Not  proper,  because  the  article  an  is  used  before  house,  which  begins 
•n-ith  the  sound  of  the  consonant  h.  But,  according  to  Note  1st  under  Uule  1st, 
"  When  the  indefinite  article  is  required,  a  should  always  be  used  before  the  sound  of 
a  consonant,  and  an  before  that  of  a  vowel."  Therefore,  an  should  be  o;  thus,  Ha 
went  into  a  house.] 

This  is  an  hard  saying. 

A  humble  heart  shall  find  favour. 

Passing  from  an  earthly  to  an  heavenly  diadem. 

Few  have  the  happiness  of  living  with  such  an  oneo 

She  evinced  an  uniform  adherence  to  the  truth. 

A  hospital  is  an  asylum  for  the  sick. 

This  is  truly  an  Avonderful  invention. 

He  is  an  younger  man  than  we  supposed. 

An  humorsome  child  is  never  long  pleased. 

A  careless  man  is  unfit  for  a  hostler. 

Under  Note  2. — Nouns  Connected. 

Avoid  rude  sports  :  an  eye  is  soon  lost,  or  bone  broken. 
As  the  drop  of  the  bucket  and  dust  of  the  balance. 
Not  a  word  was  uttered,  nor  sign  given. 
i  despise  not  the  doer,  but  deed. 

Under  Note  3. — Adjectives  Connected. 
What  is  the  difference  between  the  old  and  new  method! 
The  sixth  and  tenth  have  a  close  resemblance. 
Is  Paris  on  the  right  hand  or  left  1 
Does  Peru  join  the  Atlantic  or  Pacific   ocean  ? 
He  was  influenced  both  by  a  just  and  generous  principle.. 
The  book  was  read  by  the  old  and  young, 
I  have  both  the  large  and  small  grammar. 
Are  both  the  north  and  south  line  measured  ? 

14 


158  INSTITUTES   OF   ENGLISH   GRAMMAR.     [PART  IIL 

Are  the  north  line  nnd  south  boti  measured  ? 
Are  both  the  north  and  south  lines  measured? 
Are  both  the  north  lines  and  south  measured  ? 

Under  N'ote  4. — Adjectives  Connected. 

Is  the  north  and  tl^  south  line  measured  ? 

Are  the  two.  north  and  the  south  lines  both  measured  ? 

A  great  and  a  good  man  looks  beyond  time. 

They  made  but  a  weak  and  an  ineffectual  resistance. 

The  Allegany  and  the  Monongahela  rivers  form  the  Ohio. 

I  rejoice  that  there  is  an  other  and  )x  better  world. 

AVere  God  to  raise  up  an  other  such  a  man  as  Moses. 

The  light  and  the  worthless  kernels  will  float. 

Under  Note  5. — Articles  not  Requisite. 

Cleon  was  an  other  sort  of  a  man. 

There  is  a  species  of  an  animal  called  a  seal. 

Let  us  wait  in  the  patience  and  the  quietness. 

The  contemplative  mind  delights  in  the  silence. 

Arithmetic  is  a  branch  of  the  mathematics. 

You  will  never  have  an  other  such  a  chance. 

I  expected  some  such  an  answer. 

And  I  persecuted  this  way  unto  the  death. 

Under  Note  6. — Titles  and  Names. 

He  is  entitled  to  the  appellation  of 'a  gentleman. 
Cromwell  assumed  the  title  of  a  Protector. 
Her  father  is  honoured  with  the  title  of  an  Earl. 
The  chief  magistrate  is  styled  a  President. 
The  highest  title  in  the  state  is  that  of  the  Governor. 
"  For  th^  oak,  the  pine,  and  the  ash,  were  names  of  Trholo 
classes  of  objects." — Blair^s  Rhetoric,  p.  73. 

Under  Note  7. —  Comparisons. 

He  is  a  better  writer  than  a  reader. 

He  was  an  abler  mathematician  than  a  linguist. 

I  should  rather  have  an  orange  than  apple. 

Under  Note  8. — Nouns  with  Who  or  Which. 

Words  which  are  signs  of  complex  ideas,  are  liable  to  be  mis. 

understood. 
Carriages  which  were  formerly  in  use,  were  very  clumsy. 
The  place  is  not  mentioned  by  geographers  who  wrote  at  that 

time. 


CHAP.  II.]      SYNTAX.— RULE   IT.— N0MINATIYE3.  169 

Under  Note  9. — Pariicfpial  Nouns. 

Means  arc  always  necessary  to  accomplishing  of  ends. 
By  seeing  of  the  eye,  and  hearing  of  the  ear,  learn  wisdom. 
In  keeping  of  his  commandments,  there  is  great  reward. 
For  revealing  of  a  secret,  there  is  no  remedy. 
Have  you  no  repugnance  to  torturing  of  animals  1 

ZTnder  Note  10. — Participles,  not  Nouns. 

By  the  breaking  the  law,  you  dishonour  the  lawgiver. 
An  argument  so  weak  is  not  worth  the  mentioning. 
In  the  letting  go  our  hope,  we  let  all  go. 
Avoid  the  talking  too  much  of  your  ancestors. 
The  cuckoo  keeps  the  repeating  her  unvaried  notes. 
Forbear  the  boasting  of  what  you  can  do. 

RULE  II.— NOMINATIVES. 

A  Noun  or  a  Pronoun  whicli  is  tTie  subject  of  a  finite 
yerb,  must  be  in  the  nominative  case :  as, 

"I  know  thou  sayst  it:  says  thy  life  the  same?"— loMny. 

OBSERVATIONS    OIT    RULE    II. 

Ob3.  1. — To  this  rule  there  are  no  exceptions.  And  in  connected  language, 
every  nominative  stands  as  the  subject  of  some  verb  expressed  or  iiuder- 
etood ;  except  such  as  are  put  in  apposition  with  other  nominatives,  accord- 
ing to  Kule  8d — after  a,  verb,  according  to  Kule  21st^or  absolute,  according 
to'ilule  25th. 

Obs.  2.— Tlie  subject,  or  nominative,  is  generally  placed  Of/or^  the  verb  ; 
ns,  '■'■Peace  dawned  upon  his  mind." — Johnson.  '■'V/hat  is  written  in  Iho 
law  'r— Bible. 

Obs.  3.— But,  in  the  following  nine  cases,  the  subject  is  usually  placed 
cfler  the  verb,  or  after  the  first  auxihary:  — 

1.  "When  a  question  is  asked,  without  an  interrogative  pronoun  in  tho 
nominative  case;  as,  '^ Shall  mortals  be  implacable ?"—"  What  art  thou 
doing  f—Hooke. 

2.  When  the  verb  is  in  tho  imperative  mood  •  as,  "  Go  thou.'''' 

S.  "When  an  earnest  wish,  or  other  strong  feeling  is  expressed  ;  as,  "  J/ay 
she  be  happy  !" — "  How  were  ice  struclc .'" —  Youn(j. 

4.  "When  a  supposition  is  made  without  a  conjunction ;  as,  "  Were  titrue, 
it  would  not  injure  us." 

5.  "When  neither  or  wor,  signifying  and  not,  precedes  the  verb  ;  as,  "  This 
■wa?  Ilia  fear ;  nor  was  his  apprehencion  groundless." 

6.  When,  for  the  sake  of  emphasis,  some  word  or  words  are  placed  befora 
the  verb,  which  more  naturally  come  after  it ;  as,  "  Here  am  /."— "  Narro-w 
is  the  way." — "Silver  and  gold  have  /none ;  but  such  as  I  have,  j/iw /thee." 
—Bible. 

7.  When  tho  verb  has  no  regimen,  and  is  itself  emphatical ;  as,  "  Echotna 
mountains  round." — Tfiomsim. 

8.  "When  the  verbs  say,  thinh,  reph/,  and  the  like,  introduce  the  parts  of  a 
dialogue  ;  as,  "  '  Son  of  affliction,'  said  Omar,  '  who  art  thou  ?'  '  My  name,' 
replied  the  stran(/er,  '  is  Hassan.'  " — Johnson. 

9.  "\Vhen  the  adverb  there  precedes  the  verb  ;  as,  "  There  lived  a  man.  ■— 
2doKtg*    "■  In  all  worldly  joys,  thero  is  a  secret  mnmd,'''' — (?«««. 


160  INSTITUTES   OF  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR.     [PART  HI, 

FALSE  SYNTAX  UNDER   RULE   II. — NOMINATIVES. 
Thee  must  have  been  idle. 

[FoRMiTLK— Not  proper,  because  the  objective  pronoun  tJiee  is  made  the  subject  of 
the  verb  mMst  hiwe  been.  But,  according  to  Rule  2(1,  "A  noun  or  a  pronoun  which 
is  the  subject  of  a  finite  verb,  must  be  in  the  uominativo  case."  Therefore,  thet 
should  be  tliou ;  thus,  Thou  must  have  been  idle.] 

Him  that  is  studious,  will  improve. 

Them  that  seek  wisdom,  will  be  wise. 

She  and  me  are  of  the  same  age. 

You  are  two  or  three  years  older  than  us. 

Are  not  John  and  thee  cousins  ? 

I  can  write  as  handsomely  as  thee. 

Nobody  said  so  but  him. 

Whom  dost  thou  think  was  there? 

Who  broke  this  slate  ?  Me. 

We  are  alone  ;  here 's  none  but  thee  and  I. — Shak. 

Them  that  honour  me,  I  will  honour ;  and  them  that  despisa 

me,  shall  be  lightly  esteemed. 
He  whom  in  that  instance  was  deceived,  is  a  man  of  sound 

judgement. 

RULE  III.— APPOSITION. 

A  Noun  or  a  personal  Pronoun  used  to  explain  a  pre- 
ceding noun  or  pronoun,  is  put,  bj  apposition,  in  the 
Bame  case :  as, 

"  But  he,  our  gracious  Master,  kind  as  just, 
Knowing  our  frame,  remembers  we  are  dust." — Barbauld. 

OBSERVATIONS    ON    RULE    III. 

Obs.  1. — Apposition  is  the  using  of  different  words  or  appellations,  to  des- 
ignate tlie  same  tbing.  Apposition  also  denotes  the  relation  which  exists  be^ 
twecn  the  words  which  are  so  employed.  In  parsing,  rule  third  should  be 
applied  only  to  the  explanatory  tei-m ;  because  the  case  of  the  principal  term 
depends  on  its  relation  to  the  rest  of  the  sentence,  and  comes  under  somo 
other  rule. 

Obs.  2.— To  this  rule,  there  are  properly  no  exceptiom.  But  there  are  many 
puzzling  examples  under  it,  which  the  following  observations  are  designed 
to  explain.  The  rule  supposes  the  first  word  to  be  the  principal  term,  with 
which  the  other  is  in  apposition  ;  and  it  generally  is  so  :  but  the  explanatory 
word  is  sometimes  placed  first,  especially  among'the  poets  ;  as, 
"  From  bright'ning  fields  of  ether  fair  disclos'd. 
Child  of  the  sun,  refulgent  Summer  comes." — Thomson. 

Obs.  3. — The  pronouns  of  ih%_f.rst  and  second  persons  are  often  prefixed  ta 
nouns,  merely  to  distinguish  their  person  ;  as,  '■^  I  John  saw  these  things."— 
"  This  is  the  stone  which  was  set  at  nought  of  you  builders.''''— Bible.  "His 
praise,  ye  brooks,  oXinnQ.''''— Thomson,  lii  this  case  of  apposition,  the  words 
are  closely  united,  and  either  of  them  may  be  taken  as  the  explanatory  term  r 
the  learner  will  find  it  easier  to  parse  the  noun  by  rule  third. 
_  Obs.  4.— When  two  or  more  nouns  of  the  possessive  case  are  put  in  apposi- 
tion, the  possessive  termination  added  to  one,  denotes  the  case  of  both  or 
all :  as,  "  His  Iroiker  PMlifs  wife  ^"—"John  the  Bapisi's  head ;"— "  At  my 


CHAP.  II.]      SYNTAX.— RULE   III.— APPOSITION.  161 

friend,  Johnson's,  tlio  hoohsellery     By  a  repetition  of  the  possessive  sign,  a 
distinct  governing  noun  is  implied,  and  the  apposition  is  deatroyed. 

Ob3.  5. — In  lilfe  manner,  a  noun  Tritliout  tlie  possessive  sign,  is  sometimes 
put  in  apposition  with  a  pronnun  of  the  possessive  case;  as,  "  As  an  author, 
Ins  '  Adventurer'  is  his  capital  work." — Murray. 

"  Thus  shall  mankind  Ms  guardian  care  engage. 
The  promised/a^Aer  of  the  future  ixgey—Pope. 

Obs.  G. — When  a  noun  or  a  pronoun  li  repeated  for  the  sake  of  emphasis, 
the  word  which  is  rejieated,  may  properly  be  saitl  to  be  in  apposition  with 
that  which  is  first  introduced;  as,  "  They  have  forsaken  ?«f,  tli«  Fountain 
of  living  waters,  and  Jiewed  them  out  cisterns,  broken  cisterns,  that  can 
hold  no  water." — Jer.,  ii,  13. 

Obs.  7. — A  noun  is  sometimes  put  in  apposition  to  a  sentence;  as,  "Ho 
permitted  mc  to  consult  his  library — a  kindness  which  I  shall  not  forget." — • 
W.  Allen. 

Obs.  8. — A  distributive  term  in  the  singular  number,  is  frequently  con- 
Btrued  in  iippo  jtion  with  a  comprehensive  plural;  as,  '■'■They  reap  vanity, 
every  one  with  his  neighbour." — JBible.  "  Go  yo  every  vian  unto  his  city."— 
Ilnd.  And  :^ometimcs  a  plural  ivord  is  emphatically  put  after  a  series  of  par- 
ticulars comprehended  under  it;  as,  "Ambition,  interest,  honour,  a/i  con- 
curred."— Murray.  "  Eoyalists,  republicans,  churchmen,  sectaries,  courtiers, 
patriots,  all  parties  concurred  m  the  illusion." — Hume. 

Obs.  9. — To  express  a  reciprocal  action  or  relation,  the  pronominal  adjec- 
tives each  other  and  one  an  other  arc  employed  :  as,  "They  love  each  other ;'''' 
— "  They  love  one  an  other.''''  The  words,  separately  considered,  are  singular: 
but,  taken  together,  they  imply  plurality ;  and  they  can  be  properly  construed 
only  after  plurals,  or  singulars  taken  conjointly.  Each  other  is  usually  ap- 
plied to  two  objects ;  and  one  an  other,  to  more  than  two.  The  terms,  though 
reciprocal,  and  closely  united,  arc  never  in  the  same  construction.  If  such 
expressions  be  analyzed,  each  and  one  will  generally  appear  to  be  in  the  nom- 
inative case,  and  other  m  the  objective;  as,  "They  love  each  other ;'''  i.e., 
each  loves  the  other.  Each  is  properly  in  apposition  with  they,  and  other  is 
governed  by  the  verb.  The  terms,  however,  admit  of  other  constructions; 
as,  "Be  ye  helpers  one  of  an  other.'''' — Bible.  Here  one  is  in  apposition  with 
ye,  and  other  is  governed  by  of.  "  Yc  .ire  one  an  others  joy;" — lb.  Here  one 
IS  in  apposition  with  ye,  and  other''s  is  in  the  possessive  cas.e,  being  governed 
hyjoy.  "  Love  will  make  you  one  an  other''s  joy."  Here  one  is  in  the  object- 
ive case,  being  in  apposition  with  you,  and  other''s  is  governed  as  before. 
The  Latin  terms  alias  alium,  alii  alios,  &c.,  sufficiently  confirm  this  doctrine. 

Obs.  10. — The  common  and  the  proper  name  of  an  object  are  often  associ- 
cted,  and  put  in  apposition;  as.  The  river  Tliames, — The  ship  Albion, — The 
poet  Cowper, — Lake  Erie, — Capo  May, — Mount  Atlas.  But  the  proper 
name  of  a,  place,  when  accompanied  by  the  common  name,  is  generally  put  in 
the  objective  case,  and  preceded  by  <_/;  as,  The  city  of  New  York, — Tho 
land  o/ Canaan. 

Obs.  11. — The  several  proper  names  whieli  distinguish  an  individual,  ara 
nlways  in  apposition,  and  should  be  taken  together  in  parsing  ;  as,  WilliaTn 
Pitt', — Marcus  TulUus  Cicero. 

Obs.  12. — When  an  oh jcct  acquires  a  ncvr  r\nm(i  or  character  from  the  ac- 
tion of  a  verb,  the  new  appellation  is  put  in  apposition  with  the  object  of  the 
active  verb,  and  in  the  nominative  after  the  passive:  as,  "  They  named  tho 
child  John  ,•" — "  The  child  was  named  John.'''' — "  They  elected  him  president ;'''' 
■ — "■He  was  elected  president.''''  After  the  active  verb,  the  acquired  nalna 
must  be  parsed  by  Eu!e  3d ;  after  the  passive,  by  Eule  21st. 

FALSE   SYNTAX   UNDER  RULE   III. — APPOSITION. 

I  have  recei^^£d  a  letter  from  my  cousin,  she  that  was  here 
last  -week. 

[FoRMU"LE. — Not  proper,  because  the  nominatlvo  pronoun  she  is  used  to  explain  tha 
©Ijectivc  uoua  coimin.     But,  acoording  to  liule  8d,  "A  noun  or  a  pursonal  pronoua 


162  INSTITUTES   OF  ENGLISH   GRAMMAB.     [PART  III. 

used  to  explain  a  preceding  noun  or  pronoun.  Is  put,  by  apposition,  in  the  same  ease.'* 
Therefore,  she  should  be  her;  thus,  I  have  received  a  letter  from  my  cousin,  her  that 
■was  here  last  week.] 

The  book  is  a  present  from  my  brother  Richard,  he  that  keeps 
the  bookstore. 

I  am  going  to  see  my  friends  in  the  country,  they  that  we  met 
at  the  ferry. 

This  dress  was  made  by  Catharine,  the  milliner,  she  that  we 
saw  at  work. 

Dennis,  the  gardener,  him  that  gave  me  the  tulips,  has  prom- 
ised me  a  piony. 

Resolve  me,  why  the  cottager  and  king, 
Him  whom  sea-sever'd  realms  obey,  and  him 
Who  steals  his  whole  dominion  from  the  waste, 
Repelling  winter  blasts  with  mud  and  straw, 
Disquieted  alike,  draw  sigh  for  sigh. 

RULE  IV.— ADJECTIVES. 

Adjectives  relate  to  nouns  or  pronouns:  as,  "He  is  a 
wise  man,  though  he  is  youngT 

EXCEPTION    FIRST. 

An  adjective  sometimes  relates  to'&phrase  or  senf^Tice  which  is  made  tho 
Btibject  of  an  intervening  verb ;  as,  ''2b  instdt  the  ajiicted,  is  impious.''''-^ 
DiUwyn.     '■'That  he  should  refuse,  is  uet  strange:'' 

EXCEPTION    SECOND. 

With  an  infinitive  or  a  participle  denoting  being  or  action  in  the  abstract, 
an  adiective  is  sometimes  also  taken  abstractly ;  (that  is,  without  refereuco 
to  any  particular  noun,  pronoun,  or  other  subject;)  as,  "To  be  sincere,  is  to 
be  wise,  imwcent,  and  sa/e." — Bdwkesworth.  "-Capacity  marks  the  abstract 
quality  of  being  able  to  receive  or  hold." — Crabb's  Syjwnymes. 

OBSERVATIONS    ON    RULE    IV. 

Obs.  1. — Adjectives  often  relate  to  nouns  understood;  as,  "The  nine" 
{muses']. — "  Philip  was  one  of  tlie  seven"  [deaxions']. — Acts,  xxi,  8.  "  He  came 
nnto  his  own  [possessio7is],  and  his  own  [men]  received  him  not." — John,  i, 
11.  "  The  Lord  your  God  is  God  of  gods,  and  Lord  of  lords,  a  great  God,  a 
mighty  [God],  and  a  terrible"  [God].—Deut.,  x,  17. 

Obs.  2. — In  as  much  as  qvalities  belong  only  to  things,  most  grammarians 
teach  that  every  adjective  belongs  to  some  noun  expressed  or  understood; 
and  suppose  a  countless  number  of  unnecessary  ellipses.  But  it  is  evident 
that  in  the  construction  of  sentences,  adjectives  often  relate  immediately  to 
pronouns,  and,  through  them,  to  the  nouns  they  represent.  This  is  still 
more  obviously  the  case,  in  some  other  languages,  as  may  be  seen  by  the 
follownia:  examples,  which  retain  Bomethins'of  the  Greek  idiom  :  ''■All  ye  are 
brethren."— i/a«.,  xxiii,  8.  "  Whether  of  them  twain  did  the  will  of  his 
father?"— i/"a«.,  xxi,  31. 

Obs.  3. — When  an  adjective  follows  a  finite  verb,  and  is  not  followed  by  a 
noun,  it  generally  relates  to  the  sul'jeot  of  the  verb  ;  as,  '_'/ara  glad  that  the 
door  is  made  wide:' — "  Every  thing  which  is  false,  vicious,  or  vnworthy,  ia 
despicable  to  him,  though  all  the  world  should  approve  it." — Spectator,  No. 


CHAP.  II.]      SYNTAX.— RULE   IV.— ADJECTIVES.  163 

620.  Eere/alse,  viciovs,  and  unworthy,  relate  to  which;  and  despicable  rclatea 
to  thiruj. 

Obs.  4. — When  nn  adjective  follows  an  infinitive  or  a  participle,  the  noim 
or  pronoun  to  whicli  it  relates,  is  sometimes  betbre  it,  and  sometimes  after 
it,  and  often  considerably  remote  ;  as,  "  A  real  gentleman  cannot  but  practise 
those  virtues  which,  by  an  intimate  knowledge  of  maidvind,  he  has  found  to 
be  tiseful  to  tliem."— '*'  He  [a  melancholy  eulhusiast]  thinks  ^/ttw*//"  obliged 
in  duty  to  be  sad  and  disconsolate.''''— Addison.  "He  is  scandalized  at  youth 
for  being  ^jye^^,  and  at  childhood  for  hdna:  plai(/'u I. "—Id.  "But  growing 
weary  of  one  who  almost  walked  Lim  out  of  breath,  he  left  bim  for  Horace 
and  A  nacre  on." — Steele. 

Obs.  5. — Adjectives  preceded  by  the  definite  article,  are  often  used,  by 
ellipsis,  cs  liav'ing  the  force  of  novns.  They  designate  those  classes  of  objects 
■which  are  characterized  by  the  qualities  they  express ;  and,  in  parsing,  tho 
noun  may  be  supplied.  They  are  most  commonly  of  the  plural  number,  and 
refer  to  persons, places,  or  ^Airaj/s,  understood;  as,  "The  careless  [persons] 
and  the  imprudent,  the  giddy  and  thQ Jickle,  the  ungrateful  and  the  interested 
everywhere  meet  us." — Blair. 

"  Together  let  us  beat  this  ample  field. 
Try  what  the  open  [places],  what  the  covert,  yield." — Pope. 

Obs.  6. — The  adjective  is  generally  placed  immediately  lefore  its  noun ;  as, 
*'  Vain  man  !  is  grandeur  given  to  gay  att're  ?" — Beattie. 

Obs.  7. — Those  adjective's  which  relate  to  jowwo!/«.s  most  commonly /o??ota 
them  ;  as,  "Tliey  left  me  iveary  oc  a  grassy  turf" — Milton. 

Obs.  8.— In  the  following  instances,  the  adjective  is  placed  after  the  noun 
to  which  it  relates  : 

1.  When  other  words  depend  on  the  adjective;  as,  "A  mind  conscioics  of 
nVA<,"— "  A  wall  three  feet  thick:' 

2.  When  the  quality  results  from  the  action  of  a  verb ;  as, "  Virtue  renders 
life  happy.'''' 

8.  Wlien  the  adjective  would  thus  be  more  clearly  distinctive;  as,  "  Good- 
ness infinite,''''- — "  Wisdom  unsearchable." 

4.  \^hen  a  verb  comes  between  the  adjective  and  the  noun;  as,  "Truth 
Btands  independent  of  all  external  things." — Burgh. 

Obs.  9. — In  some  cases,  the  adjective  may  either  precede  or  follow  the 
noun;  as, 

1.  In  poetry;  as, 

"  Wilt  thou  to  thewZc.*  _ 
Atlantic,  to  the  rich  Hesperian  clime, 
lly  in  the  train  of  Autumn?" — Akenside. 

2.  In  some  technical  expressions ;  as,  "  A  notary  public,"  or,  "  A  public 
notary." 

3.  When  an  adverb  precedes  the  adjective;  as,  "  ABeing  infinitely  wise," 
cr,  "  An  infinitely  wise  Being." 

4.  When  several  adjectives  belong  to  the  same  noun ;  as,  "  A  woman, 
modest,  sensible,  and  virtuous,"  or,  "  A  modest,  sensible,  and  virtuous  wo- 
man." 

Obs.  10. — An  emphatic  adjective  may'be  placed  first  in  the  sentence,  though 
it  belong  after  the  verb ;  as,  "  Weighty  is  the  anger  of  the  righteous."-^ 
B'Me. 

Obs.  11. — By  an  ellipsis  of  the  noun,  an  adjective  with  a  preposition  before 
it,  is  sometimes  equivalent  loan  adverb;  as,  "/«  particular;''''  that  is,  in  a 
particular  manner;  equivalent  to  ''particularly:^  In  parsing,  supply  tha 
ellipsis.     [See  Obs.  2d,  under  Rule  xxii.] 

NOTES    TO    RULE    IV. 

Note  I. — Adjectives  that    imply  uuity  or  plurality,  must 
agree  with  their  nouns  in  number ;  as,  That  sort,  those  sorts. 
Note  II. — When  the  adjective  is  necessarily  plural,  or  nece-s* 


164  INSTITUTES   OF  ENGLISH   GKAMMAR.     [PART  III. 

Barily  singular,  the  noun  should  be  made  so  too;  as,  ^^ Twenty 
pounds,'''' — not,  "  Twenty  pownc/;" — '■'■One  ses§io7i,^^ — not,  "One 
sessions.^^ 


Ob3.  1. — In  some  peculiar  phrases,  this  rule  appears  to  be  disregarded  ;  ai«, 
'■'■Two  hundred penn-y worth  of  bread  is  not  sufficient." — John,  vi,  7.  '■'■Twenty 
sail  of  vessels ,  — "  A  hundred  head  of  cattle." 

Obs.  2. — To  denote  a  collective  number,  a  singular  adjective  may  preceda 
a  plural  one;  as,  "One  hundred  men," — '■'Eoery&ix  weeks," — "Ono  seveu 
times." — Dan.,  iii,  19.. 

Obs.  3. — To  denote  plurality,  the  adjective  mani/  may,  in  like  manner,  pre* 
cede  an  or  a  with  a  singular  noun  ;  as, 

"  Full  man!/  ajiower  is  born  to  blush  unseen. 
And  waste  its  sweetness  on  the  desert  air." — Gray. 

Note  III — The  reciprocal  expression,  one  an  other.,  should 
rot  be  applied  to  tioo  objects,  nor  each  other,  or  one  the  other., 
to  more  than  two :  because  reciprocity  between  two  is  some 
act  or  relation  of  each  or  one  to  the  other,  an  object  definite, 
and  not  of  one  to  an  other,  which  is  indefinite;  but  reciprocity 
among  three  or  more  is  of  one,  each,  or  every  one,  not  to  one 
other  solely,  or  the  other  definitely,  but  to  others,  a  plurality, 
or  to  an  other,  taken  indefinitely  and  implying  this  plurality. 

Note  IV. — The  comparative  degree  can  only  be  used  in 
reference  to  two  objects,  or  classes  of  objects ;  the  superlative 
compares  one  or  more  things  with  all  others  of  the  same  class, 
■whether  few  or  many  :  as,  "Edward  is  ta^/er  than  James;  he 
is  the  largest  of  my  scholars." 

Note  V. — When  the  comparative  degree  is  employed,  the 
latter  term  of  comparison  should  never  include  the  former;  as, 
'■'Iron  is  more  useful  than  all  the  metals.''^  It  should  be,  "than 
all  the  other  metals.''^ 

Note  VI. — When  the  superlative  degree  is  employed,  the 
latter  term  of  comparison  should  neYev  exclude  the  former;  as, 
"A  fondness  for  show,  is,  of  all  other  follies,  the  most  vain." 
The  word  other  should  be  expunged. 

Note  VII. — Comparative  terminations,  and  adverbs  of  de- 
gree, should  not  be  applied  to  adjectives  that  are  not  susceptible 
of  comparison  ;  and  all  double  comparatives  and  double  super- 
latives should  be  avoided :  as,  "60  universal  a  complaint :" 
say,  '■''So  generaV — "  Some  less  nobler  plunder  :"  say,  "  less 
noble.'''' — "  The  most  straitest  sect :"  cxpimge  most. 

Note  VIII. — When  adjectives  are  connected  by  and,  or,  or 
nor,  the  shortest  and  simplest  should  in  general  be  placed  first; 
as,  "  He  is  older  and  more  respectable  than  his  brother." 

Note  IX. — An  adjective  and  its  noun  may  be  taken  as  a 
compound  term,  to  which  other  adjectives  may  be  prefixed. 
The  most  distinguishing  quality  should  be  expressed  next  to 
the  noun :  as,  "A  fine  young  man," — not,  "A  young  fine  man," 


CHAP.  II.]      SYNTAX.— RULE   IV,— ADJECTIVES.  165 

Note  X. — In  prose,  the  use  of  adjectives  for  adverbs,  is  im 

proper:  as,  "He  writes  elegant;'''' — say,  '■'■  elegantly,'''' 

Obs.  1. — \n  poetry,  an  adjective  relating  to  tlie  noun  or  pronoun,  is  some* 
times  elegantly  used  in  stead  of  an  adverb  qualifying  the  verb  or  participle ;  as, 

"  To  thee  I  bend  the  knee  ;  to  thee  my  thoughts 
Continual  climb."— 2'Ao7/M(>«. 

Ob9.  2. — In  order  to  determine,  in  difficult  cases,  whether  an  adjective  ot 
an  adverb  is  required,  the  learner  should  carefully  attend  to  the  definition!* 
of  these  parts  of  speech,  and  consider  whether,  in  the  case  in  question,  (^w/i< 
i<y  or  77ia«wer  is  to  be  expressed :  if  the  former,  an  adjective  is  proper;  if 
the  latter,  an  adverb.  The  following  examples  will  illustrate  tnis  point: 
"She  looks  mid  ; — she  looks  coldly  on  him." — "  I  sat  silent  ;^1  sat  sikntlg 
musing." — "  Stand jf/v»; — maintam  your  cause  ^n?%." 

Note  XI. — The  pronoun  them  should  never  be  used  as  an 
adjective  in  lieu  of  those:  say,  "I  bought  those  books," — not, 
*'  them  books."     This  is  a  vulgar  error. 

Note  XII. — When  the  pronominal  adjectives,  this  and  that, 
or  these  and  those,  are  contrasted  ;  this  or  these  should  represent 
the  latter  of  the  antecedent  terms,  and  that  or  those,  the  former; 
as, 

*'  And,  reason  raise  o'er  instinct  as  you  can. 

In  this  'Lis  God  directs,  in  that  'tis  man." — Pope. 
"  Farewell  my  friends  !  farewell  my  foes  ! 
My  peace  with  these,  my  love  with  those  P"* — Burns. 

Note  XIII. — The  pronominal  adjectives  each,  one,  either,  and 
neither,  are  always  in  the  third  person  singular ;  and,  when 
they  are  the  leading  words  in  their  clauses,  they  require  verbs 
and  pronouns,  to  agree  with  them  accordingly  :  as,  '■'■Each  of 
you  is  entitled  to  his  share." — '•  Let  no  one  deceive  himself.'^'' 

Note  XIV. — The  pronominal  adjectives  either  and  ne'ither 
relate  to  two  things  only  ;  when  more  arc  referred  to,  any  and 
none  should  bo  used  in  stead  of  them  :  as,  '■^Any  of  the  three  ;" 
—not,  "■Either  of  the  three."— "iVorte  of  the  four ;"— not,  "iVei 
ther  of  the  four," 

Note  XV. — Participial  adjectives  retain  the  termination, 
but  not  the  government,  of  participles ;  when,  therefore,  they 
are  followed  by  the  objective  case,  a  preposition  must  be  in- 
serted to  govern  it:  as,  "The  man  who  is  most  sparing  ©/"his 
words,  is  generally  most  £?eservirty  o/ attention."  , 

FALSE   SYNTAX  UNDER   RULE    IV. — ADJECTIVES. 
Examples  under  Note  1. — Of  Agreement. 
-     Those  sort  of  people  you  will  find  to  be  troublesome. 

[FoRMULE. — Not  proper,  because  the  adjective  those  is  in  the  plural  number,  and 
does  not  agree  with  its  noun  >sort.  which  is  siiiirular.  But,  according  to  Note  1st  under 
llule  4th,  "Adjectives  that  imply  unity  or  plurality,  must  agree  with  their  nouno  ia 
number."  Therefore,  Ihose  should  be  thai;  thus,  That  sort  of  people  you  will  find  to 
be  tJTOublosotue.J 


166  INSTITUTES  OF  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.     [PAET  IIL 

Things  of  these  sort  are  easily  understood. 

Who  broke  that  tongs? 

Where  did  I  drop  this  scissors  ? 

Bring  out  that  oats. 

Extinguish  that  embers. 

I  disregard  this  minutise. 

Those  kind  of  injuries  we  need  not  fear. 

What  was  the  height  of  those  gallows  which  Haman  erected  1 

Under  Note  2. —  Of  Fixed  Numbers, 

We  rode  about  ten  mile  an  hour. 

'Tis  for  a  thousand  pound. —  Cowper. 

How  deep  is  the  water  ?     About  six  fathom. 

The  lot  is  twenty -five  foot  wide. 

I  have  bought  eight  load  of  wood. 

Under  Note  3. — Of  Reciprocals. 

Two  negatives  in  English  destroy  one  another. — Lowth. 
That  the  heathens  tolerated  each  other,  is  allowed. 
David  and  Jonathan  loved  one  an  other  tenderly. 
Words  are  derived  from  each  other  in  various  ways. 
Teachers  like  to  see  their  pupils  polite  to  each  other. 
The  Gracet,  always  hold  the  one  the  other  by  the  hand. 

Under  Note  4. — Of  Degrees. 

He  chose  t!ie  latter  of  these  three. 

Trissyllables  are  often  accented  on  the  former  syllable. 

Which  are  the  two  more  remarkable  isthmuses  in  the  world  1 

Under  Note  5. —  Of  Comparatives. 

The  Scriptures  are  more  valuable  than  any  writings. 

The  Russian  empire  is  more  extensive  than  any  government 

in  the  world. 
Israel  loved  Joseph  more  than  all  his  children,  because  he  was 

the  son  of  his  old  age. —  Gen.,  xxxvii,  3. 

Under  Note  6. —  Of  Si/perkdives. 

Of  all  'other  ill  habits  idleness  is  the  most  incorrigible. 

Eve  was  the  fairest  of  all  her  daughters. 

Hope  is  the  most  constant  of  all  the  other  passions. 

Under  Note  7. — Extra  Comparisons. 

That  opinion  is  too  universal  to  be  easily  corrected. 

Virtue  confers  the  supremest  dignity  upon  man. 

How  much  more  are  ye  better  than  the  fowls  ! — Luhe,  xiL 


CHAP.  II.]       SYNTAX.— RULE  IV.— ADJECTIVES.  1G7 

Do  not  thou  hasten  above  the  Most  Highest. — Esdras,  TV, 
This  was  the  most  unkindest  cut  of  all. — Shakspeare. 
The  waters  are  more  sooner  and  harder  frozen. —  Verstegan. 
A  more  healthier  place  cannot  be  found. 
The  best  and  the  most  wisest  men  often  meet  with  discourag© 
ments. 

Under  Note  8. — Adjectives  Connected. 

He  showed  us  a  more  agreeable  and  easier  way. 
This  was  the  most  convincing  and  plainest  argument. 
Some  of  the  most  moderate  and  wisest  of  the  senators. 
This  is  an  honourable  and  ancient  fraternity. 
There  vice  shall  meet  an  irrevocable  and  fatal  doom. 

Under  Note  9. — Adjectives  Prefixed. 

He  is  a  young  industrious  man. 

She  has  a  new  elegant  house. 

The  two  first  classes  have  read. 

The  oldest  two  sons  have  removed  to  the  westward. 

England  had  not  seen  such  an  other  king. —  Goldsmith. 

Under  Note  10. — Adjectives  for  Adverbs. 

She  reads  well  and  writes  neat. 

He  was  extreme  prodigal. 

They  went,  conformable  to  their  engagement. 

He  speaks  very  fluent,  and  reasons  justly. 

The  deepest  streams  run  the  most  silent. 

These  appear  to  be  finished  the  neatest. 

He  was  scarce  gone  when  you  arrived. 

I  am  exceeding  sorry  to  hear  of  your  misfortunes. 

The  work  was  uncommon  well  executed. 

This  is  not  such  a  large  cargo  as  the  last. 

Thou  knowst  what  a  good  horse  mine  is, 

I  cannot  think  so  mean  of  him. 

He  acted  much  wiser  than  the  others. 

Under  Note  11. — Them  for  Those. 

I  bought  them  books  at  a  very  low  price. 

Go  and  tell  them  boys  to  be  still. 

I  have  several  copies :  thou  art  welcome  to  them  two. 

Which  of  them  three  men  is  the  most  useful  ? 

Under  Note  12.— This  and  That. 

Hope  is  as  strong  an  incentive  to  action,  as  fear :  this  is  the 
anticipation  of  good,  that  of  evil. 


168  INSTITUTES   OF  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR.     [PART  HL 

The  poor  want  some  advantoges  which  the  rich  enjoy  ;  but  wo 
should  not  therefore  account  those  happy,  and  these  miserable. 
Memory  and  forecast  just  returns  engage, 
This  pointing  back  to  youth,  that  on  to  age, 

Under  Note  13. — Each,   One,  etc. 
Let  each  of  them  be  heard  in  their  turn. 

On  the  Lord's  day  every  one  of  us  Christians  keep  the  sab- 
bath.— Irenoeus. 
Are  either  of  these  men  known  ? 
No  :  neither  of  them  have  any  connexions  here. 

Under  Note  14. — Either  and  Neither. 

Did  either  of  the  company  stop  to  assist  you? 
Here  are  six ;  but  neither  of  them  will  answer. 

Under  Note  15. — Participial  Adjectives. 

Some  crimes  are  thought  deserving  death. 

Rudeness  of  speech  is  very  unbecoming  a  gentleman. 

To  eat  with  unwashen  hands,  was  disgusting  a  Jew. 
Leave  then  thy  joys,  unsuiting  such  an  age, 
To  a  fresh  comer,  and  resign  the  stage. — Dryden. 

RULE  v.— PRONOUNS. 

A  Pronoun  must  agree  with  its  antecedent,  or  the 
noun  or  pronoun  which  it  represents,  in  person,  number, 
and  gender:  as,  "  This  is  the  friend  of  ichom  I  spoke ; 
lie  has  just  arrived." — "  This  is  the  book  which  I  bought ; 
it  is  an  excellent  work." — "  Ye,  therefore,  who  love 
mercj,  teach  yoar  sous  to  love  it  too." — Coiajjer. 

EXCEPTION    FIRST. 

When  a  pronoun  stands  for  some  person  or  tiling  indefinite  or  unknown  to 
the  speaker,  this  rule  is  not  strictly  iipplicable  ;  because  the  person,  number, 
and  gender,  are  ratber  assumed  than  regulated  by  an  antecedent :  as,  '•  I  do 
not  cai'e  wlio  knows  it." — Steele.     "  Wlio  touched  me  ?    Tell  me  who  it  was." 

EXCEPTION    SECOND. 

The  neuter  pronoun  it  may  be  applied  to  a  young  child,  or  to  other  crea- 
tures masculine  or  feminine  by  nature,  wheu  they  are  not  obviously  distin- 
guishable with  regard  to  sex  ;  as,  "  Which  is  the  real  friend  to  the  child,  tho 
person  who  gives  it  the  sweetmeats,  or  the  person  who,  considering  only  itt 
health,  resists  its  importunities  ?" — Opie.  "  lie  loads  the  animal,  he  is  sliow- 
ing  me,  with  so  many  trappings  and  collars,  that  1  cannot  distinctly  view 
ii." — Murray.  "The  nujldingale  sings  most  sweetly  wheu  it  sings  in  the 
night." — Burle. 

EXCEPTION    THIRD. 

The  pronoun  it  is  often  used  without  a  definite  reference  to  any  antece- 


CHAP.  II.j        SYNTAX —RULE   V.— PRONOUNS.  169 

dent,  and  is  sometimes  a  mere  expletive ;  as,  "  Whether  she  grapple  ii  with 
the  pride  of  philosophy."^  6%aZ7Wfr.?. 

"Come,  and  trip  it  as  you  go 
On  the  light  fantastic  toe." — Milton, 

EXCKPTION    FOURTH. 

A  singular  antecedent  with  the  adjective  many,  sometimes  admits  a  plural 
pronoun,  but  never  in  the  same  clause ;  as, 

"  In  Hawick  twinkled  rnany  a  li/jM, 
Behind  him  soon  tkey  set  in  uight." —  W,  Scott, 

EXCEPTION   FIFTH. 

When  a  plural  pronoun  is  put  by  enallago  for  the  singular,  it  does  not 
agree  with  its  noun  in  number,  because  it  still  requires  a  plural  verb ;  as, 
"'^Fe  [Lindley  Murray]  have  followed  those  authors." — Murray's  Gram..  8vo, 
p.  29.  "  We  shall  close  our  remarks  on  this  subiect." — lb,  *'  My  lord,  you, 
tcruno  I  love  you^ — Shalcspeare. 

OBSERVATIONS    ON    RULE    V. 

Obs.  1. — Tlie  pronoun  we  is  used  by  the  speaker  to  represent  himself  and 
others,  and  is  therefore  plural.  But  it  is  sometimes  usecl,  by  a  sort  of  fiction, 
in  stead  of  the  singular,  to  incimato  that  the  speaker  is  not  alone  in  his  opin- 
ions. Monarchs  sometimes  join  it  to  a  singular  noun  ;  as,  "  We  Alexander, 
Autocrat  of  all  the  Russias."  They  also  employ  the  compound  o-Mr«eZ/',  which 
is  not  used  by  other  people. 

Obs.  2. — The  pronoun  yoii,.,  though  originally  and  properly  plural,  is  now  gen- 
erally apphod  alike  to  oue  person  or  to  more.  [See  Ohs.  2d,  page  71.1  This 
usage,  however  it  mav  seem  to  involve  a  solecism,  is  estaolished  by  that 
authority  against  whieii  the  mere  grammarian  has  scarcely  a  right  to  remon- 
strate. We  do  not,  however,  think  it  necessary  or  advisable,  to  encumber 
the  conjugations,  as  some  have  done,  by  introducing  this  pronoun  and  tho 
corresponding  form  of  the  verb,  as  singular.  It  is  manifestly  better  to  say 
that  the  plural  is  used/ar  the  singular,  by  the  figure  Enallage.  This  change 
has  introduced  the  compound  yourulf,  which  is  used  in  stead  of  thyself  . 

Obs.  3. — Tho  general  usage  of  the  French  is  like  that  of  the  EngliM.  you 
Tot  thou  ;  hat  Spanish,  Portuguese,  and  German  politeness  requires  that  the 
third  person  be  substituted  for  the  second.  And,  when  they  would  be  very 
courteous,  the  Germans  use  also  the  plural  for  the  singular,  as  they  for  thou. 
Thus  they  have  a  fourfold  method  of  addressing  a  person :  as,  they,  denot- 
ing the  highest  degree  of  respect;  he,  a  less  degree  ;  you,  a  degree  still  less ; 
and  tlwu,  none  at  all,  or  absoUite  reproach.  Yet,  even  among  them,  the  last 
is  used  as  a  term  of  endearment  to  children,  and  of  veneration  to  God  ! 

Obs  4. — Such  perversions  of  the  original  and  proper  use  of  language,  aro 
doubtless  matters  of  considerable  moment.  These  changes  in  the  use  of  tho 
pronouns  being  evidently  a  sort  of  complimentary  Jictions,  some  have  made  it 
a  matter  of  conscience  to  abstain  from  them,  and  have  pubhshed  their  re..- 
Bons  for  so  doing.  But  the  moral  objections  which  may  lie  against  such  or 
any  other  applications  of  words,  do  not  come  within  the  grammarian's  prov- 
ince. Let  every  one  consider  for  himself  the  moral  bearing  of  what  ho 
utters.     [See  Matthew,  xii,  S6  and  S7.] 

Obs.  5. — When  a  pronoun  represents  the  name  of  an  inanimate  object  per- 
sonified, it  agrees  with  its  antecedent  in  tho  figurative,  and  not  in  tho  literal 
eense ;  [See  the  figure  Syllepsis,  in  part  iv  ;]  as, 

"  Penance  dreams  her  life  away." — Rogers. 
"  Grim  Darkness  furls  his  leaden  shroud." — Id. 
One.  6. — When  the   antecedent  is   applied  Tnetaphorically,   the  pronoun. 
Rgreea  with  it  in  its  literal,  and  not  in  its  figurative  sense ;  as,  "  Pitt  was  tha 
pillar  which  upheld  the  state." — "  The  "monarch  of  mountains  rears  hia 
Bnowy  head."     [See  Figures,  in  pakt  iv.] 

8 


170  INSTITUTES  OP  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.     [PART  IH, 

Obs.  7. — "When  the  antecedent  is  put  by  metonymy  for  a  noun  of  different 
properties,  the  pronoun  sometimes  agrees  with  it  in  the  figurative,  aud 
BOmetimes  in  the  literal  sense  ;  as, 

"The  wolf,  who  [that]  from  the  nightly  fold, 
Fierce  drags  the  bleating  j^rey,  ne'er  drunk  Tier  milk, 
Nor  wore  lier  warming  fleece." — Thomson. 

"  That  each  may  fill  the  circle  mark'd  by  Heaven, 
Who  sees  with  equal  eye,  as  God  of  all, 
A  hero  perish  or  a  sparrow  fall." — Pope. 
"  And  heaven  beholds  its  image  in  his  breast." — Id. 
Obs.  8. — When  the  antecedent  is  put  by  synecdoche  for  more  or  less  than. 
it  literally  signifies,  the  pronoun  agrees  with  it  in  the  figurative,  aud  not  iu 
the  literal  sense  ;  as, 

♦*  A  dauntless  soul  erect,  who  smiled  on  death." — Thomson, 

"  But,  to  the  generous  still  improving  mind, 
That  gives  the  hopeless  heart  to  sing  for  joy, 
To  him  the  long  review  of  ordered  life 
Is  inward  rapture  only  to  be  felt." — Id. 

Obs.  9. — Pronouns  usually  follow  the  words  which  they  represent ;  but 
this  order  is  sometimes  reversed :  as,  "  Whom  the  cap  fits,  let  him  put  it  on," 
• — "  Hark  1  they  whisper ;  angels  say,"  »fec. 

Obs.  10. — A  pronoun  sometimes  represents  a  phrase  or  sentence;  and  in. 
this  case,  the  pronoun  is  always  in  tne  third  person  singular  neuter :  as, 
*'  She  is  very  handsome;  and  she  has  the  misfortune  to  know  ii." — "  Yet  men 
can  go  on  to  vilify  or  disregard  Christianity ;  which  is  to  talk  and  act  as  if 
they  had  a  demonstration  of  its  falsehood." — Bp.  Butler. 

Obs.  11. — When  a  pronoun  follows  two  words,  having  a  neuter  verb  be- 
tween them,  aud  both  referring  to  the  same  thing,  it  may  represent  either 
of  them,  biit  not  with  the  same  meaning ;  as,  1.  "I  am  the  man  who  com- 
mand :"  here,  who  command  belon^^s  to  the  subject  /,  and  the  meaning  is, 
"I  who  command,  am  the  man."  (The  latter  expression  places  the  relative 
nearer  to  its  antecedent,  and  is  therefore  preferable.)  2.  ''I  am  the  man 
who  commands:"  here,  who  commands  belongs  to  the  predicate  man,  and 
the  meaning  is,  "  I  am  the  commander." 

Obs.  12. — After  the  expletive  it,  which  may  be  employed  to  introduce  a 
noun  or  pronoun  of  any  person,  number,  or  gender,  the  above-mentioned 
distinction  is  generally  disregarded ;  and  the  relative  is  made  to  agree  with 
the  latter  word :  as,  "/;;  is  not  I  that  do  it."  The  propriety  of  this  coustruc' 
tion  is  questionable. 

Obs.  13. — The  pronoun  it  frequently  refers  to  something  mentioned  in  the 
Bubsequent  part  of  the  sentence.  This  pronoun  is  a  necessary  expletive  at 
the  commencement  of  a  sentence  in  which  the  verb  is  followed  by  a  clause 
which,  by  transposition,  may  be  made  the  subject  of  the  verb ;  as,  '■'■It  is  im- 
possible topleaae  every  one.'''' — "/if  was  requisite  that  the  papers  should  be  sent.'''' 

Obs.  14. — Relative  and  interrogative  pronouns  are  placed  at  or  near  the  be- 
gi?hnina  of  their  o%vn  clauses ;  and  the  learner  must  observe  that,  through 
all  their  cases,  they  almost  invariably  retaLu  tliis  situation  in  the  sentence, 
and  are  often  found  before  their  verbs  when  the  order  of  construction  would 
reverse  this  arrangement:  as,  "He  tvlio  preserves  me,  to  whmn  I  owe  my 
being,  whose  I  am,  and  whom  I  serve,  is  eternal." — Murray.  "  Who  but  God 
can  tell  us  icho  they  are  ?" — Pope.     "  He  whom  you  seek." — Lowth. 

Obs.  15. — Every  relative  pronoun,  being  the  representative  of  some  antccfe- 
dent  word  or  phrase,  derives  from  this  relation  its  person,  number,  and  gen- 
der, but  not  its  case.  By  taking  an  other  relation  of  case,  it  helps  to  form  an 
other  clause;  and,  by  retaining  the  essential  meaning  of  its  antecedent, 
nerves  to  connect  this  clause  to  tnat  in  which  the  antecedent  is  found.  Rel- 
atives, therefore,  cannot  be  used  in  an  independent  simple  sentence,  nor 
with  a  subjunctive  verb;  but,  like  other  connectives,  they  belong  at  tlw  head 
of  a  clause  in  a  compound  sentence,  and  they  exclude  conjunctions,  except 
when  two  such  clauses  are  to  be  johied  together :  as,  "  Blessed  is  the  mau, 
w7to  fcaretb  the  Lord,  and  who  keepeth  his  commandments." 


CHAP.  II.]        SYNTAX.— RULE  V.— PRONOUNS.  171 

Ob9.  16. — The  special  rides  commonly  {riven  hy  the  prnmmarianB,  for  ths 
construction  of  relatives,  are  hoth  unnecessary  and  faulty.  It  usually  takes 
two  rules  to  parse  a  pronoun  ;  one  for  its  agreement  with  the  noun  or  nouns 
which  it  represents,  and  the  other  for  its  ease.  But  neither  relatives  nor  in- 
terrogatives  require  any  special  rules  for  the  construction  of  their  cases,  he- 
cause  the  general  rules  for  the  cases  apply  to  pronouns  as  well  as  to  nouns. 
And  both  relatives  and  interrogatives  genenuly  admit  every  construction 
common  to  nouns,  except  apposition.  Let  the  learner  parse  the  foDowing 
examples : — • 

1.  Nominatives  by  Rule  2d:  "I  wAo  write;— Thou  who  writest: — Hq  tvlo 
WTites; — the  animal  m'/ac/*  runs." — Dr.  Adam,  "lie  that  spareth  his  rod, 
hateth  his  son." — Solomon.  "He  icho  does  any  thing  which  he  knows  is 
wrong,  is  a  sinner." — "  What  will  become  of  us  without  religion?" — Blair. 
"  Here  I  determined  to  wait  the  hand  of  death  ;  which,  I  hoi)e,  when  at  last 
it  comes,  will  fall  lightly  upon  me." — Dr.  Johnson.  "  What  is  sudden  and 
unaccountable,  serves  to  confound." — Crabb.  "  They  only  are  wise,  who  are 
wise  to  salvation." — Goodwin. 

2.  Nominatives  by  Rule  2\st :  "  Who  art  thou  ?"— "  WJiat  were  we  V— Bible. 
"Do  not  tell  them  who  1  am." — "Let  him  be  who  he  may,  he  is  not  tho 
honest  fellow  that  he  seemed." — "  The  general  conduct  of  mankind  is  neither 
what  it  was  designed,  nor  what  it  ought  to  be." 

3.  Nominatives  absolute  by  Rule  25th:  "There  are  certain  bounds  to  im- 
prudence and  misbehaviour,  whici.  being  transgressed,  there  remains  no  placo 
for  repentance  in  the  natural  course  of  things." — Bp.  Butler.  This  construc- 
tion of  the  relative  is  a  Latkiism,  and  very  seldom  used  by  the  best  £nglish 
writers. 

4.  Possessives  by  Rule  19<7^.•  "The  chief  man  of  the  island,  whose  name 
was  PubUus." — Acts.  "  Despair,  a  cruel  tyrant,  from  lohose  prisons  nono 
can  escape." — Dr.  Johnson.  "  To  contemplate  on  Him  whose  yoke  is  easy 
and  whose  burden  is  light."- — Steele. 

5.  Objectives  hy  Rule  20th :  "  Those  w^owi  she  persuaded." — Dr.  Johnson^ 
"■  The  cloak  that  I  left  at  Troas."— 6';;.  Paul.  "  By  the  things  which  he  suf- 
fered."— Id.  "A  man  whom  there  is  reason  to  suspect." — "  lF7«z<  are  we 
to  do?" — Burhe.  "Love  refuseth  nothing  that  love  sends." — Gurnall. 
"  Whom,soever  you  please  to  appoint." — Loxcth.  "  Whatsoever  he  doeth,  shall 
prosper." — Bwle.  "  What  we  are  afraid  to  do  before  men,  we  should  ba 
afraid  to  think  before  God." — Sibs.  "  Shall  I  hide  from  Abraham  that  thing 
which  I  do  V—Gen.,  xviii,  32.  "  Shall  I  hide  from  Abraham  what  I  do  ?"— 
"  Call  imperfection  what  thou  fanciest  such." — Pope. 

6.  Objectives  by  Rule  2lst:  "  He  is  not  the  man  that  I  took  him  to  be." — 
"  Whom  did  you  suppose  me  to  l^e?" — "  Let  the  lad  become  what  you  wish 
him  to  be."  ,  ■ :  / ,   /'  i  ^ 

7.  Objectives  by  Rule  22d:  "  To  wlwm  shall  we  go?" — Bible.  "The  law3 
by  which  the  world  is  governed,  are  general." — Butler.  "  Whom  he  looks 
upon  as  his  defender." — Addison.  "  Tliat  secret  heaviness  of  heart  which 
mithinking  men  are  subject  to." — Id.  "I  cannot  but  think  the  loss  of  such 
talents  as  the  man  of  whom  I  am  speaking  was  master  of,  a  more  melanclioly 
instance." — Steele. 

Obs.  17. — In  familiar  language,  the  relative  in  the  objective  case  is  fre- 
quently understood;  as,  "Here  is  the  letter  [which]  I  received."  The  omis- 
sion of  the  relative  in  the  nominative  ease,  is  inelegant;  as,  "This  is  tho 
worst  thing  [that]  could  happen."  The  latter  ellipsis  sometimes  occurs  iu 
poetry ;  as, 

"  In  this  'tis  God — directs,  in  that  'tis  man." — Pope. 
Obs.  18. — The  antecedent  is  sometimes  suppressed,  especially  in  poetry; 
as,  "How   shall  I  curse   [him  or  thejn]  whom   God   hatl^  not  cursed."— 
Numb.,  xxiii,  8. 

ffe]  "  Who  lives  to  nature,  rarely  can  be  poor  ; 
He]  Who  lives  to  fancy,  never  can  be  rich." — Young. 
Obs.  19. —  WJiat  is  sometimes  used  adverbially;  as,  "Though  I  forbear, 
what  am  I  entiedV—Job,  xvi,  6. — That  is,  hoivinuch?  or  wherein  f    "Tha 


172  INSTITUTES  OF  ENGLISH  GRAMMAK.     [PART  III. 

enemy  having  bis  country  -wasted,  wTiat  by  himself  and  2v7iat  by  the  soldiers, 
findeth  succour  in  no  place." — Spenser.     Here  tvhat  means  2M?-tly, — "  wasted 
parUi/  by  himself  and  <arUt/  by  the  soldiers." 
ObSc  20. —  What  is  so'  netimcs  used  as  a  mere  interjection  ;  as, 

"  What!  this  a  sleeve  ?  'tis  like  a  demi-cannon." — Shalcspeare. 

"  What!  can  you  lull  the  winged  winds  asleep? — Camphell. 

NOTES    TO    RULE    V. 

Note  I. — A  pronoun  should  not  be  introduced  in  connexion 
with  words  that  belong  more  properly  to  the  antecedent,  or  to 
an  other  pronoun  ;  as, 

"  My  banks  they  are  furnished  with  bees." — Shenstone. 

Obs. — This  is  only  an  example  oi  pleonasm ;  which  is  allowable  and  fre- 
quent in  animated  discourse,  but  inelegant  in  any  other.  [See  Pleonasm,  iu 
PAKT  rv.] 

Note  II. — A  change  of  number  in  the  second  person,  is  in- 
elegant and  improper  ;  as,  '*  You  wept,  and  I  for  thee.'''' 

Obs. — Poets  have  sometimes  adopted  this  solecism,  to  avoid  the  harshness 
of  the  verb  in  the  second  person  singular ;  as, 

"  As,  in  that  lov'd  Athenian  bower. 
You  learn' d  an  all  commanding  power, 
Thy  mimic  soul,  O  nymph  endear'd  ! 
Can  well  recall  what  then  it  heard." —  Collins. 

Note  III. — ^The  relative  who  is  applied  only  to  persons,  and 
to  animals  personified ;  and  which,  to  brute  animals  and  inani- 
mate things  :  as,  "  The  judge  who  presided ;" — "  The  old  crab 
who  advised  the  young  one ;" — "  The  horse  which  ran ;" — "  The 
book  which  was  given  me." 

Obs. —  Which,  as  well  as  ivho,  was  formerly  applied  to  persons;  as,  "  Our 
Father  which  art  in  heaven." — Bible.  It  may  still  be  applied  to  a  young 
child ;  as,  "  The  child  which  died." — Or  even  to  adults,  when  they  are 
Bpoken  of  without  regard  to  a  distinct  personality  or  identity  ;  as,  "  Which  of 
you  will  go?" — "  Crabb  knoweth  not  which  is  which,  h'un&elf  or  h'la  parodist." 
■ — Leigh  Hunt, 

Note  IV. — Nouns  of  multitude,  unless  they  express  persons 
directly  as  such,  should  not  be  represented  by  the  relative 
who:  to  say,  '•'•^hQ  family  whom  I  visited,"  would  hardly  be 
proper;  that  would  here  be  better.  When  such  nouns  are 
strictly  of  the  neuter  gender,  ivhich  may  represent  them ;  as, 
"The  conmiittees  which  were  appointed." 

Note  V, — A  proper  name  taken  merely  as  a  name,  or  an 
appellative  taken  in  any  sense  not  strictly  personal,  must  bo 
represented  by  which,  and  not  by  who  ;  as,  "  Herod — iohich  is 
but  another  name  for  cruelty." — "  In  every  prescription  of 
duty,  God  proposeth  himself  as  a  rewavder;  which  he  is  only 
to  those  that  please  him." — Dr.  J.  Owen. 

Note  VI. — The  relative  that  may  be  applied  either  to  per- 
sons or  to  things.  In  the  following  cases,  it  is  generally  pre- 
ferable to  who  or  which,  unless  it  be  necessary  to  use  a  prepo- 


CHAP.  II.]         SYNTAX.— EULE   V.— PRONOUNS.  173 

sition  before  the  relative; — 1.  After  an  adjective  of  the  super- 
lative degree,  when  the  relative  clause  is  restrictive  ;  as,  "  Ho 
was  the^Vs^  that  came." — 2.  After  the  adjective  same^  to  ex- 
plain its  import;  as,  "This  is  the  same  person  that  I  met  he- 
fore." — 3.  After  the  antecedent  who  ;  as,  "  Who  that  has  com- 
mon sense,  can  think  so '?" — 4.  After  a  joint  reference  to  per- 
sons and  things  ;  as,  "  He  spoke  of  the  men  and  things  that  he 
had  seen." — 5.  After  an  unlimited  antecedent,  which  the  rela- 
tive and  its  verb  are  to  restrict ;  as,  "  Thoughts  that  breathe, 
and  %vords  that  burn." — 6.  After  an  antecedent  introduced  by 
the  expletive  it;  as,  ^'' It  is  you  that  command." — "//  wa.v  1 
that  did  it." — -7.  And,  in  general,  where  the  propriety  of  loho 
or  ivhich  is  doubtful ;  as,  "  The  little  child  that  was  placed  in 
the  midst." 

Note  VII. — When  several  relative  clauses  come  in  succes- 
sion, and  have  a  similar  dependence  in  respect  to  the  antece- 
dent, the  same  pronoun  must  be  employed  in  each ;  as,  "  O 
thou  who  art,  and  ivho  wast,  and  who  art  to  come !" — "  And 
they  shall  spread  them  before  the  sun,  and  the  moon,  and  all 
the  host  of  heaven,  lohom  they  have  loved,  and  'whom  they  have 
served,  and  after  whom  they  have  walked,  and  whoin  they  have 
sought,  and  ^ohom  they  have  worshipped." — Jer.,  viii,  2. 

Note  VIII. — The  relative,  and  the  preposition  governing  it, 
should  not  be  omitted,  when  they  are  necessary  to  give  con- 
nexion to  the  sentence ;  as,  "  He  is  still  iu  the  situation  \in 
whidi\  you  saw  him." 

Note  IX. — An  adverb  should  not  be  used  where  a  preposi- 
tion and  a  relative  pronoun  would  better  express  the  relation 
of  the  tei'ms;  as,  "A  cause  where  [for  in  %ohicli\  justice  is  so 
much  concerned." 

Note  X. — Where  a  pronoun  or  a  pronominal  adjective  will 
not  express  the  meaning  clearly,  the  noun  must  be  repeated, 
or  inserted  in  stead  of  it.  Example  :  "  We  see  the  beautiful 
variety  of  colour  in  the  rainbow,  and  are  led  to  consider  the 
cause  of  27"  [ — that  variety]. 

Note  XI. — To  prevent  ambiguity  or  obscurity,  the  relative 
should  be  placed  as  near  as  possible  to  the  antecedent.  The 
following  sentence  is  therefore  faulty  :  "  Pie  is  like  a  beast  of 
prey,  that  is  void  of  compassion."  Better :  "  He  that  is  void 
of  compassion,  is  like  a  beast  of  prey." 

Note  XII. — ^Thc  pronoun  what  should  never  be  used  in 
stead  of  the  conjunction  that ;  as,  "  He  will  not  believe  but 
what  I  am  to  blame."      What  should  be  that. 

Note  XIII. — A  pronoun  should  not  be  used  to  represent  an 
adjective  ;  because  it  can  neither  express  a  concrete  quality  aa 

15* 


174  INSTITUTES  OF  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.     [PART  IIL 

such,  nor  convert  it  properly  into  an  abstract.  Example: 
"  Be  attentive  ;  without  which  you  will  learn  nothing."  Better: 
"  Bo  attentive ;  for  without  attention  you  will  learn  nothing." 

FALSE   SYNTAX  UNDER   RULE    V. — PRONOUNS. 

No  person  should  be  censured  for  being  careful  of  their  rep- 
utation. 

[FoKMULE.— Not  proper,  becauso  tho  pronoun  tlteir  is  of  tho  plural  number,  and 
floc'S  not  correctly  represent  its  antecedent  noun  person,  wliicli  i,s  of  the  third  per?on 
aingnlar,  masQMMne.  But,  according  to  Rule  5th,  "A  pronoun  naust  agree  iv  it  li  is 
antecedent,  or  the  noun  or  pronoun  which  it  represents,  in  person,  number,  and  c^n- 
tlcr."  Therefore,  their  should  be  his  :  thus,  No  person  should  bo  censured  for  bcin<' 
careful  oihis  rei)utalion.]  " 

Every  one  must  judge  of  their  own  feelings. — Byron. 

Can  any  person,  on  their  entrance  into  the  world,  be  fully  se- 
cure that  they  shall  not  be  deceived  ? 

He  cannot  see  one  in  prosperity  without  envying  them. 

I  gave  him  oats,  but  he  would  not  eat  it. 

Rebecca  took  goodly  raiment,  and  put  them  on  Jacob. 

Take  up  the  tongs,  and  put  it  in  its  place. 

Let  each  esteem  others  bettor  than  themselves. 

A  person  may  make  themselves  happy  without  riches. 

Every  man  should  try  to  provide  for  themselves. 

Tlie  mind  of  man  should  not  be  left  without  something  on. 
which  to  employ  his  energies. 

An  idler  is  a  watch  that  wants  both  hands, 
As  useless  if  he  goes,  as  when  ho  stands. 

Under  Note  1. — Pronou7is  Wronr;  or  Needless. 
Many  words  they  darken  speech. 

These  praises  he  then  seemed  inclined  to  retract  them. 
Those  people  they  are  all  very  ignorant. 
Asa  his  heart  was  perfect  with  the  Lord. 
Who,  in  stead  of  going  about  doing  good,  they  are  perpetually 

intent  upon  doing  mischief. — TiUotson. 
Whom  ye  delivered  up,  and  denied  him  in  the  presence  of 

Pontius  Pilate. — Acts,  iii,  13. 
Whom,  when  they  had   washed,  they  laid  her  in  an  upper 

chamber.-— ylc^s,  ix,  37. 
What  I  have  mentioned,  there  are  witnesses  of  the  fact. 
What  he  said,  he  is  now  sorry  for  it. 
The  empress,    approving  these  conditions,  she  immediately 

ratified  them. 
This  incident,  though  it  appears  improbable,  yet  I  cannot  doubt 

the  author's  veracity. 

Under  Note  2. —  Change  of  Number. 
Thou  art  vay  father's  brother,  else  would  I  reprove  you. 


CHAP.  II.]         SYNTAX.— RULE  V.—PRONOUNS.  175 

Your  weakness  is  excusable,  but  thy  wickedness  is  not. 

Now,  my  son,  I  forgive  tliee,  and  freely  pardon  your  fault 
You  draw  the  insj^iring  breath  of  ancient  song, 
Till  nobly  rises  emulous  thy  own. — Thomson. 

Under  Note  3. —  Of  Who  and  Which. 

This  is  the  horse  whom  my  father  imported. 

Those  are  the  birds  whom  we  call  gregarious. 

He  has  two  brothers,  one  of  which  I  am  acquainted  with. 

What  was  that  creature  whom  Job  called  leviathan  ? 

Those  which  desire  to  be  safe,  should  b€  carefid  to  do  that 

which  is  right, 
A  butterfly  which  thought  himself  an  accomplished  traveller, 

happened  to  light  upon  a  bee-hive. 
There  was  a  certain  householder  which  planted  a  vineyard. 

Under  Note  4. — Nouns  of  Multitude. 
He  instructed  and  fed  the  crowds  who  surrounded  him. 
The  court,  who  has  great  influence  upon  the  public  manners, 

ought  to  be  very  exemplary. 
The  wild  tribes  who  inhabit  the  wilderness,  contemplate  the 

ocean  with  astonishment,  and  gaze  upon  the  starry  heavens 

with  delight. 

Under  Note  5. — Mere  Names. 

Judas  (who  is  now  another  name  for  treachery)  betrayed  bia 

master  with  a  kiss. 
He  alluded  to  Phalaris, — who  is  a  name  for  all  that  is  cruel. 

Under  Note  6. —  That  Preferable. 

He  was  the  first  who  entered. 

He  was  the  drollest  fellow  whom  I  ever  saw. 

This  is  the  same  man  whom  we  saw  before. 

Who  is  she  who  comes  clothed  in  a  robe  of  green? 

The  wife  and  fortune  whom  he  gained,  did  not  aid  him. 

Men  who  are  avaricious,  never  have  enough. 

All  which  I  have,  is  thine. 

Was  it  thou,  or  the  wind,  who  shut  the  door  1 

It  was  not  I  who  shut  it. 

The  babe  who  was  in  the  cradle,  appeared  to  be  healthy. 

Under  Note  7. — Relative  Clauses  Connected. 

He  is  a  man  that  knows  what  belongs  to  good  manners,  and 

who  will  not  do  a  dishonourable  act. 
The  friend  who  was  here,  and  that  entertained  us  so  much,  will 

never  be  uble  to  visit  us  again. 


176  INSTITUTES  OF   ENGLISH   GRAMMAK.     [PAEV  III. 

The  curiosities  which  he  has  brought  home,  and  that  we  shall 
have  the  pleasure  of  seeing,  are  said  to  be  very  rare. 

Under  Note  8. — Relative  and  Preposition. 

Observe  them  in  the  order  they  stand. 
We  proceeded  immediately  to  the  place  we  were  directed. 
My  companion  remained  a  week  in  the  state  I  left  him. 
The  way  I  do  it,  is  this. 

Under  Note  9. — Adverbs  for  Relatives. 

Remember  the  condition  whence  thou  art  rescued. 

I  know  of  no  rule  how  it  may  be  done. 

He  drew  up  a  petition,  where  he  too  freely  represented  his  owa 

merits. 
The  hour  is  hastening,  when  whatever  praise  or  censure  I  have 

acquired,  will  be  remembered  with  equal  inditlerence. 

Under  Note  10. — Repeat  the  Noun, 

Many  will  acknowledge  the  excellence  of  religion,  who  cannot 

tell  wherein  it  consists. 
Every  difference  of  opinion  is  not  that  of  principle. 
Next  to  the  knowledge  of  God,  this  of  ourselves  seems  most 

worthy  of  our  endeavour. 

Under  Note  11. — Place  of  the  Relative. 

Thou  art  thyself  the  man  that  committed  the  act,  who  hast 

thus  condemned  it. 
There  is  a  certain  majesty  in  simplicity,  which  is  far  above  the 

quaintness  of  wit. 
Thou  hast  no  I'ight  to  judge  Avho  art  a  party  concerned. 
It  is  impossible  for  such  men  as  those,  ever  to  determine  this 

question,  who  are  likely  to  get  the  appointment. 
There  are  millions   of  people  in  the  empire  of  China,  whos^ 

support  is  derived  almost  entirely  from  rice. 

Under  Note  12. —  What  for  That. 

I  had  no  idea  but  what  the  story  was  true. 

The  post-boy  is  not  so  Aveary  but  what  he  can  whistle. 

He  had  no  intimation  but  what  the  men  were  honest. 

Under  Note  13. — Adjectives  for  Antecedents. 

Some  men  ai'e  too   ignorant  to  be  humble ;  without  which 

there  can  be  no  docility. — Berkley. 
Judas  declared  him  innocent ;  which  he  could  not  be,  had  he 

in  any  respect  deceived  the  disciples. — Porteus. 


CHAP.  II.]         SYNTAX.— RULE   VI.— PRONOUNS.  177 

Be  accurate  in  all  you  say  or  do;  for  it  is  important  in  all  the 
concerns  of  lite. 

Every  law  supposes  the  transgressor  to  be  wicked ;  which  in- 
deed he  is,  if  the  law  is  just. 

RULE  VI.— PRONOUNS.  ' 

When  the  antecedent  is  a  collective  noun  conveying 
the  idea  of  plurality,  the  Pronoun  must  agree  with  it  in 
the  plural  number ;  as,  "  The  council  were  divided  in 
their  sentiments." 

OBSERVATION    ON    RULE    VI. 

Most  collective  nouns  of  the  neuter  gender,  may  take  the  regular  plural 
form^  and  be  represented  by  a  pronoun  in  the  thii'd  person,  plural,  neuter; 
as,  "  The  nations  will  enforce  tMir  laws.''  This  con&truction  comes  under 
Jvule  5th.    To  Rule  6th  there  are  no  exceptmis. 

NOTE    TO    RULE    VI. 

A  collective  noun  conveying  the  idea  of  unity,  requires  a 
pronoun  in  the  third  person,  singular,  neuter,  agreeably  to 
Rule  5th ;  as,  "  The  nation  will  enforce  its  laws." 

FALSE   SYNTAX   UNDER   RULE   VI. — PRONOUNS. 
The  jury  will  be  confined  till  it  agrees  on  a  verdict. 

[FoRMULE. — Not  proper,  because  the  pronoun  it  is  of  the  singular  number,  and  doea 
rot  correctly  represent  its  antecedent  jury,  which  is  a  collective  noun,  conveying  tbo 
idea  of  plurality.  But,  according  to  Ilule  Gth,  "  When  the  antecedent  is  a  collective 
noun  conveying  the  idea  of  plurality,  the  pronoun  must  agree  with  it  in  the  plural 
number."  Therefore,  it  should  be  they;  thus, 'the  jury  "will  bo  confined  till  they 
agree  on  a  verdict.] 

hi  youth,  the  multitude  eagerly  pursue  pleasure,  as  if  it  were 
its  chief  good. 

The  council  were  not  unanimous,  and  it  separated  without 
coming  to  any  determination. 

The  committee  were  divided  in  sentiment,  and  it  referred  the 
business  to  the  general  meeting. 

There  happened  to  the  army  a  very  strange  accident,  which 
put  it  in  great  consternation. 

The  enemy  were  not  able  to  support  the  charge,  and  he  dis- 
persed and  fled. 

The  defendant's  counsel  had  a  difficult  task  imposed  on  it. 

The  board  of  health  publish  its  proceedings. 

I  saw  all  the  species  thus  delivered  from  its  sorrows. 

Under  Note  to  Rule  6th.  —  The  Idea  of  Unity. 

I  saw  the  whole  species  thus  delivered  from  their  sorrows. 
This  court  is  famous  for  the  justice  of  their  decisions, 

8* 


178  INSTITUTES   OF   ENGLISH   GRAMMAR.     [PART  IIL 

The  convention  then  resolved  themselves  into  a  committee  of 

the  whole. 
The  crowd  was  so  great  that  the  judges  with  difficulty  made 

their  way  through  them. 

RULE  VII.— PRONOUNS. 

When  a  Pronoun  lias  two  or  more  antecedents  con- 
nected by  and,  it  must  agree  with  them  in  the  plural 
number ;  as,  ^'- James  and  John  will  favour  us  with  their 
company." 

EXCEPTION    FIRST. 

When  two  or  more  antecedents  connected  by  and,  serve  merely  to  describe 
one  person  or  thing;  they  are  in  apposition,  and  do  not  require  a  plural 
pronoun :  as,  "  This  great  philosopher  and  statesman  continued  in  pubfic  lite 
till  his  eighty-second  year." — "  The  same  Spirit,  light,  and  life,  which  en- 
lighteneth," also  sanctifieth,  and  there  is  not  an  other." — Fening'ton. 

EXCEPTION    SECOND. 

"When  two  antecedents  connected  by  and^  are  emphatically  distinguished ; 
they  belong  to  different  propositions,  and  (if  singular)  do  not  require  a  plu- 
ral pronoun  :  as,  "  The  hutler,  and  not  the  baker^  was  restored  to  his  oflSce." 
— "  The  good  man,  and  the  sinner  too,  shall  have  his  reward." — ^'■Truth,  and 
truth  only,  is  worth  seeking  for  its  own  sake." 

EXCEPTION    THIRD. 

"When  two  or  more  antecedents  connected  by  and,  are  preceded  by  tho 
adjective  each,  every,  or  n-o  ;  they  are  taken  separately,  and  do  not  require  a 
plural  pronoun :  as,  '■'■Every  plant  and  every  tree  produces  others  after  iti 
kind." — "  It  is  the  original  cause  ot  every  reproach  and  distress  which  has  at- 
tended the  government." — Junius. 

OBSERVATIONS    ON   RULE    VII. 

Obs.  1. — When  the  antecedents  are  oi  different  persons,  the  first  person  is 
preferred  to  the  second,  and  the  second  to  the  third:  as,  "  John,  and  thou, 
and  I,  are  attached  to  our  country." — "  John  and  thou  are  attaelied  to  your 
country." 

Obs.  2. — The  gender  of  pronouns,  except  in  the  third  person  singular,  is 
distinguished  only  by  their  antecedents.  In  expressing  that  of  a  pronoun 
which  has  antecedents  of  different  genders,  the  masculine  should  be  preferred 
to  the  feminine,  and  the  feminine  to  the  neuter. 

FALSE   SYNTAX   UNDER   RULE   VII.^ — PRONOUNS. 
Discontent  and  sorrow  manifested  itself  in  his  countenance. 

[FoitMtTLE. — Not  proper,  because  the  pronoun  itself  i?,  of  the  singular  number,  and 
does  not  correctly  represent  its  two  antecedents  discontent  and  sorrow,  which  are 
connected  by  and,  and  taken  conjointly.  But,  according  to  Kule  7th,  "Wlien  ii  pvo- 
jioun  has  two  or  more  antecedents  connected  by  and,  it  must  agree  with  them  in  llio 
plural  number."  Therefore,  tise^/ should  be  themselves;  thus,  Biscontent  and  sorrow 
inanifestod  themselves  in  his  countenance] 

Your  levity  and  heedlessness  if  it  continue,  will   prevent  all 

substantial  improvement. 
Poverty  and  obscurity  will  oppress  him  only  who  esteems  it 

oppressive. 


CHAP.  1.]      SYNTAX.— RULE   VIII.— PRONOUNS.  179 

Good  sense  and  refined  policy  are  obvious  to  few,  because  it 

cannot  be  discovered  but  by  a  train  of  reflection. 
Avoid  haughtiness  of  behaviour,  and  affectation  of  manners :  it 

implies  a  want  of  solid  merit. 
If  love  and  unity  continue,  it  will  tLX'ke  you  partakers  of  one 

an  other's  joy. 
Suffer  not  jealousy  and  .distrust  to  enter:  it  will  destroy,  like 

a  cankei',  every  germ  of  friendship. 
Hatred  and  animosity  are  inconsistent  with  Christian  charity : 

guard,  therefore,  against  the  slightest  indulgence  of  it. 
Every  man  is  entitled  to  liberty  of  conscience,  and  freedom 

of  opinion,  if  he  does  not  pervert  it  to  the  injury  of  others. 

RULE  VIII.— PRONOUNS. 

"When  a  Pronoun  has  two  or  more  singular  antece* 
dents  connected  by  oi-  or  7ior,  it  must  agree  with  them  in 
the  singular  number:  as,  ^^ James  or  John  will  favour  us 
with  his  company," 

OBSERVATIONS    ON    RULE    VHI. 

Ob9.  1. — When  a  pronoun  has  two  oi-  more  plural  antecedents  connected 
by  ar  or  nar,  it  is  of  course  plural,  and  agrees  with  them  severally.  To  the 
foregoing  rule,  there  are  properly  no  exceptions. 

Obs.  2. — When  antececlents  of  difl'erent  persons,  numbers,  or  genders,  are 
connected  by  or  or  7ior,  they  cannot  be  represented  by  a  pronoun  that  is  not 
applicable  to  each  of  them.  The  following  sentence  is  therefore  inaccurate : 
•'  Either  thou  or  /am  greatly  mistaken  in  our  judgement  on  this  subject." — • 
Murray's  Key.  But  dilierent  pronouns  may  be  so  connected  as  to  refer  to 
6uch  antecedents  taken  separately;  as,  "  By  requiring  greater  labour  from 
euch  slave  or  slaves,  than  he  or  she  or  they  are  able  to  perform." — Prince^ 
X)igest.  Or,  if  the  gender  only  be  different,  the  masculine  may  involve  the 
feminine  by  implication;  as,  "  If  a  man  smite  the  eye  of  his  servant  or  th» 
CTC  of  his  7?iata  that  it  perish,  he  shall  let  him  go  free  for  his  eye's  sake."— 
ixodus,  xxi,  2G. 

FALSE   SYNTAX   UNDER   RULE   VIII. — PRONOUNS. 

Neither  wealth  nor  honour  can  secure  the  happiness  of  their 
votaries. 

[FoRMULE, — ^Not  proper,  because  the  pronoun  their  is  of  tlio  i>lural  ruimbsi',  and 
does  not  correctly  represent  its  two  antecedents  iceidth  and  honour,  which  are  con- 
nected \tj  nor,  and  taken  disjunctively.  But,  accordina;  to  Rule  8th,  "When  a  pro- 
noun has  two  or  more  singular  antecedents  connected  by  or  or  nor,  it  must  agree 
with  them  in  the  singular  number."  Therefore, /,V2;-  should  bo  ite;  thus.  Neither 
(vealtli  nor  honour  can  secure  the  happiness  oiits  votaries.] 

Neither  Sarah,  Ann,  nor  Jane,  has  performed  their  task. 

One  or  the  other  must  relinquish  their  claim. 

A  man  is  not  such  a  machine  as  a  clock  or  a  watch,  which  will 

move  only  as  they  are  moved. 
Rye  or  barley,  when  they  arc  scorched,  may  supply  the  placs 

of  coffee. 


180  INSTITUTES   OF   ENGLISH   GRAMMAR.    [PART  III, 

A  man  may  see  a  metaphor  or  an  allegory  in  a  picture,  as  well 

as  read  them  in  a  description. 
Despise  no  infirmity  of  mind  or  body,  nor  any  condition  of 

life,  for  they  may  be  thy  own  lot. 

EULE  IX.— VERBS. 

A  finite  Yerb  must  agree  with,  its  subject,  or  nomi- 
native, in  person  and  number :  as,  "  I  hwiu  ;  thou  knowst, 
or  hiowest;  he  hioivs,  or  hnowethr — "  The  bird  j^ies;  the 
birds/?/." 

OBSERVATIONS    ON    RULE    IX, 

Obs.  1. — To  this  general  rule  for  the  verb,  there  are  properly  no  exceptions. 
The  infinUite  mood^  having  no  relation  to  a  nominative,  is  of  course  exempt 
from  such  agreement ;  and  all  the  special  rules  which  follow,  virtually  accord 
with  this. 

Obs.  2. — "Every  Jinite  verb  (that  is,  every  verb  not  in  the  infinitive  mood) 
must  have  some  noun,  pronoun,  or  phrase  equivalent,  known  as  the  subject 
of  the  being,  action,  or  passion ;  and  with  this  subject  the  verb  must  agree 
in  person  and  number. 

Obs.  3. — Different  verbs  always  Aave  different  subjects,  expressed  or  un- 
derstood ;  except  when  two  or  more  verbs  are  connected  in  the  same  con- 
Btruction,  or  when  the  same  verb  is  repeated  for  the  sake  of  emphasis. 

Ob3.  4. — Verbs  in  the  imperative  mood,  commonly  agree  with  the  pronoun 
tlwu,  ye,  or  you,,  understood;  as,  '■'■Do  [thou]  as  thou  list." — Shak.  '■'■Trust 
God  and  he  doing,  and  leave  the  rest  with  him." — Dr.  Sibs. 

Obs.  5.- — The  place  of  a  verb  can  have  reference  only  to  that  of  the  subject 
with  whicb  it  agrees,  and  that  of  the  object  which  it  governs ;  this  matter  is 
therefore  sufficiently  explained  in  the  observations  under  Rule  2d  and  Rule 
20th. 

NOTES    TO    RULE   IX. 

Note  I. — "  The  adjuncts  of  tho  nominative  do  not  control 
its  agreement  with  the  verb:  as,  Six  months'  interest  was  due." 
—  W.  Allen.  '■'■T^hc  propriety  of  these  rules  is  evident." — Id. 
"  The  7nill,  with  all  its  appurtenances,  loas  destroyedP 

Note  II. — The  infinitive  mood,  a  phrase,  or  a  sentence,  is 
sometimes  the  subject  to  a  verb;  a  subject  of  this  kind,  how- 
ever composed,  if  it  is  taken  as  one  whole,  requires  a  verb  in 
the  third  person  singular ;  as,  "To  lie  is  base." — ^'- To  see  the 
sun  is  pleasant." — '■^  That  you  have  violated  the  law,  is  evident." 
— '■^ For  what p)ur2yose  tltcy  embarked,  is  not  yet  known." — ''^Hoio 
far  the  change  would  contribute  to  his  welfare,  comes  to  be  con- 
sidered."— Blair. 

Obs.  1. — The  same  meaning  will  be  expressed,  if  the  pronoun  it  bo  placed 
before  the  verb,  and  the  infinitive,  phrase,  or  sentence,  after  it;  as,  '■'■It  is 
base  to  lie.'''' — "  It  is  evident  that  you  have  ■violat^ed  the  laiv.^''  The  construction 
of  the  foUowina:  sentences  is  rendered  defective  by  the  omission  of  the  pro- 
noun :  "  Why  do  ye  that  which  [?'<]  is  not  lawful  to  do  on  the  sabbath  days?" 
— Lvlce,  vi,  2.  "  The  show-bread  which  [it}  is  not  lawful  to  eat,  but  for  the 
priests  only." — LiiTce,  vi,  4. 

Obs.  2. — When  the  uifinitivc  mood  is  made  the  subject  of  a  finite  verb,  it 


CHAIMI.]  SYNTAX.— RULE   IX.— VERBS.  181 

is  usod  to  express  some  action  or  state  in  the  abstract;  .ia,  "7b  he  contents 
his  natural  desire."— Po/7f.  Here  to  be  stands  for  simple  existence.  In  con- 
nexion with  the  infinitive,  a  concrete  quality  may  also  be  taken  as  an  ab- 
stract; aa,  "7-;  he  good  ia  to  be  happy.'"  Here  good  and  /^rtp;;^  express  the 
quality  of  goodness  and   the  state  of  happiness,  considered  abstractly ,  and 


the  way  to  become    so."     Here  the  satisfaction  and  the  discouragement  are 
considered  abstractly,  and  without  reference  to  any  p.irticular  person. 

Ob3.  3.— When  the  action  or  state  is  to  be  limited  to  a  particular  person  or 
thing,  the  noun  or  pronoun  may  be  introduced  before  the  infinitive,  by  thq 
preposition. /or,'  as,  ''For  a  prince  to  ^e  re(^i/m^  by  villany  to  my  distreasfui 
circumstances,  is  calamity  enough." — Tr.  of  Sallust. 

Note  III. — A  neuter  or  a  passive  verb  between  two  nomin 
atives  should  be  made  to  agree  with  that  which  precedes  it ; 
as,  "  Words  are  wind  :"  except  when  the  terms  are  transposed, 
and  the  proper  subject  is  put  after  the  verb  by  question  or 
hyperbaton;  as,  "His  pavilion  were  dark  waters  and  thick 
clouds  oi' thQ  ^kyy— Bible.  ''Who  art  thou T— lb.  "The 
wages  of  sill  is  death.'''' — lb. 

Note  IV. — When  the  verb  has  different  forms,  that  form 
should  be  adopted,  whick  is  the  most  consistent  with  present 
and  reputable  usage  in  the  style  employed :  thus,  to  say  fix 
miliarly,  "  The  clock  hath  stricken,'" — "Thou  laur/hedst and  talk 
edst,  when  thou  oughtest  to  have  been  silent," — "  He  readcth 
and  writeth,  but  he  doth  not  cipher," — would  be  no  better, 
than  to  use  doiit,  wont,  can^t,  shanH,  and  d'uln't,  in  preaching. 

NoTE-V. — Every  finite  verb  not  in  the  imperative  mood, 
should  have  a  se[iarate  nominative  expressed ;  as,  "/  came,  1 
saw,  I  conquered  {'''  except  when  the  verb  is  repeated  for  the 
sake  of  emphasis,  or  connected  to  an  other  in  the  same  con- 
struction ;  as, 

"They  bud,  bloio,  wither,  fall,  and  die'' — Watts. 

FALSE    SYNTAX  UNDER  RULE   IX. — VERBS. 
You  was  kindly  received. 

[FoRMTTLK— Not  proper,  because  the  passive  verb  was  received  is  of  the  singular 
r.uinber,  and  does  not  a^ree  with  its  nominative  you,  wtiich  is  of  the  second  person, 
plural.  But,  according  to  Rule  9th,  "A  finite  verb  must  agree  with  its  subject,  or 
nominative,  in  person  and  number."  Tlierefore,  waa  recewd  should  bo  were  r#- 
coived  ;  thus.  You  were  kindly  received.] 

We  was  disappointed. 
She  dare  not  oppose  it. 
His  pulse  are  too  quick. 
Circumstances  alters  cases. 
He  need  not  trouble  himself 
Twenty-four  pence  is  two  shillings. 
On  one  side  was  beautiful  meadows. 
Ho  may  pursue  what  studies  he  pleasa. 


182  INSTITUTES   OF   ENGLISH   GRAMMAR.     [PART  IIJ. 

What  have  become  of  our  cousins  ? 

There  was  more  impostors  than  one. 

What  says  his  friends  on  this  subject  1 

Thou  knows  the  urgency  of  the  case. 

What  avails  good  sentiments  with  a  bad  life  1 

Has  those  books  been  sent  to  the  school  ? 

There  is  many  occasions  for  the  exercise  of  patience. 

What  sounds  have  each  of  the  vowels  ? 

There  were  a  great  number  of  spectators. 

There  are  an  abundance  of  treatises  on  this  easy  science. 
While  ever  and  anon  there  falls 
Huge  heaps  of  hoary  moulder'd  walls. — Dyer. 

He  that  trust  in  the  Lord,  will  never  be  without  a  friend. 

Errors  that  originates  in  ignorance,  is  generally  excusable. 

Be  ye  not  as  the  horse,  or  as  the  mule,  which  have  no  under- 
standing. 

Not  one  of  the  authors  who  mentions  this  incident,  is  entitled 
to  credit. 

The  man  and  woman  that  was  present,  being  strangers  to  him, 
wondered  at  his  conduct. 

There  necessarily  follows  from  thence  these  plain  and  unques- 
tionable consequences. 

O  thou,  for  ever  present  in  my  way, 
Who  all  my  motives  and  my  toils  survey. 

Under  Note  1. — Nominatives  with  Adjuncts. 
The  derivation  of  these  words  are  uncertain. 
Tour  years'  interest  were  demanded. 
One  added  to  nineteen,  make  twenty. 
The  increase  of  orphans  render  the  addition  necessary. 
The  road  to  virtue  and  happiness,  are  open  to  all. 
The  ship,  with  all  her  crew,  were  lost. 
A  round  of  vain  and  foolish  pursuits,  delight  some  folks. 

Under  Note  2. —  Composite  Subjects. 
To  obtain  the  praise  of  men,  were  their  only  object. 
To  steal  and  then  deny  it,  are  a  double  sin. 
To  copy  and  claim  the  writings  of  others,  are  plagiarism. 
To  live  soberly,  righteously,  and  piously,  are  required  of  all 

men. 
That  it  is  our  duty  to  promote  peace  and  harmony  among 

men,  admit  of  no  dispute. 

Under  Note  3. —  Verb  between  Nominatives, 
The  reproofs  of  instruction  is  the  way  of  life. 
A  diphthong  are  two  vowels  joined  in  one  syllable. 


CHAP.  II.]  SYNTAX.— RULE   IX.— VERBS.  183 

So  great  an  affliction  to  him  was  his  wicked  sons. 
What  is  the  latitude  and  longitude  of  that  island  ? 
He  churlishly  said  to  me,  "  Who  is  you  1" 

Under  Note  4. — Adapt  Form  to  Style. 

1.  For  the  Familiar  Style. 

Was  it  thou  that  buildedst  that  house  ? 

That  boy  writeth  very  elegantly. 

Couldest  not  thou  write  without  blotting  thy  book  1 

Thinkest  thou  not  it  will  rain  to-day  ? 

Doth  not  your  cousin  intend  to  visit  you  % 

That  boy  hath  torn  my  book. 

Was  it  thou  that  spreadest  the  hay  1 

Was  it  James  or  thou  that  didst  let  him  in  ? 

He  dareth  not  say  a  word. 

Thou  stoodest  in  my  way  and  hinderedst  me. 

2.  For  the  Solemn  Style. 

The  Lord  has  prepar'd  his  throne  in  the  heavens ;  and  his  king- 
dom rules  over  all. 

Thou  answer'd  them,  O  Lord  our  God :  thou  was  a  God  that 
forgave  them,  though  thou  took  vengeance  of  their  inventions. 

Then  thou  spoke  in  vision  to  thy  Holy  One,  and  said — 

So  then  it  is  not  of  him  that  wills,  nor  of  him  that  runs,  but  of 
God  that  shows  mercy. 

Under  Note  5. — Express  the  Nominative. 

New  York,  Fifthmonth  3d,  1823. 
Dear  friend,  Am  sorry  to  hear  of  thy  loss ;  but  hope  it  may- 
be retrieved.     Should  be  happy  to  render  thee  any  assist- 
ance'in  my  power.     Shall  call  to  see  thee  to-morrow  morn- 
ing.    Accept  assurances  of  my  regard.  A.  B. 

New  York,  May  3d,  P.  M.,  1823. 
Dear  sir,  Have  just  received  the  kind  note  favoured  me  with 
this  morning ;  and  cannot  forbear  to  express  my  gratitude 
to  you.  On  further  information,  find  have  not  lost  so  much 
as  at  first  supposed ;  and  believe  shall  still  be  able  to  meet 
all  my  engagements.  Should,  however,  be  happy  to  see 
you.     Accept,  dear  sir,  nay  most  cordial  thanks.       C.  D. 

Will  martial  flames  forever  fire  thy  mind, 

And  nevex-,  never  be  to  Heaven  resign'd  1 — Pope. 

EULE  X.— VERBS. 

"When  tlie  nominative  is  a  collective  noun  conveying 


184  INSTITUTES  OF  ENGLISH  -GRAMMAR.    [PART   III. 

the  idea  of  plurality,  the  Verb  must  agree  with  it  in  the 
plural  number ;  as,  "  The  council  were  divided.''^ 

OBSERVATION    ON    RULE    X. 

To  this  rule  there  are  710  exceptions.  Whenever  the  collective  noun  con- 
veys the  idea  of  plurality  without  tlie  form,  the  verb  is  to  be  parsed  by  Rule 
loth;  but  if  the  nominative  conveys  the  idea  of  unity  or  takes  the  plural 
form,  the  verb  is  to  be  parsed  by  Rule  9th.  The  only  difficulty  is,  to  deter- 
mine in  what  sense  the  noun  should  be  taken.  In  modern  usage,  a  plural 
verb  is  commonly  adopted  wherever  it  is  admissible ;  as,  "  The  public  are 
informed^'''' — "The  plaintiif' s  counsel  are  of  opinion," — "  The  committee  we/'« 
instrucMP 

NOTE    TO    RULE    X. 

A  collective  noun  conveying  the  idea  of  unity,  requires  a 
verb  in  the  third  person,  singular  ;  and  generally  admits  also 
the  regular  plural  construction  :  as,  "  His  army  was  defeated."" 
"His  armies  were  defeated.'''' 

FALSE   SYNTAX   UNDER  RULE   X. — VERBS. 
The  people  rejoices  in  that  which  should  cause  sorrow, 

[FoRMiTLE. — Not  proper,  because  the  verb  rejoices  is  of  the  singular  number,  and 
does  not  correctly  agree  with  its  jiominativc  people,  wliich  is  a  collective  noun  con- 
veying the  idea  of  plurality.  But,  according  to  Rule  10th,  "When  the  nominative  is 
a  collective  noun  conveying  the  idea  of  plurality,  the  verb  must  agree  with  it  in  tho 
plural  number."  Therefore,  r^^'oices  should  he  rejoice ;  thus,,  Ihe  ^qo^Xq  rejoice  iTi. 
that  which  should  cause  sorrow.] 

The  nobility  was  assured  that  he  would  not  interpose. 

The  committee  has  attended  to  their  appointment. 

Mankind  was  not  united  by  the  bonds  of  civil  society. 

The  majority  was  disposed  to  adopt  the  measure. 

The  peasantry  goes  barefoot,  and  the  middle  sort  makes  use 

of  wooden  shoes. 
All  the  world  is  spectators  of  your  conduct. 
Blessed  is  the  people  that  know  the  joyful  sound. 

Under  Note  to  Rule  10. —  The  Idea  of  Unity. 

The  church  have  no  power  to  inflict  corporal  punishments. 
The  fleet  were  seen  sailing  up  the  channel. 
The  meeting  have  established  several  salutary  regulations. 
The  regiment  consist  of  a  thousand  men. 
A  detachment  of  two  hundred  men  were  immediately  sent. 
Every  auditory  take  this  in  good  part. 
In  this  business,  the  house  of  commons  were  of  no  weight. 
Are  the  senate  considered  as  a  separate  body  ? 
There  are  a  flock  of  birds. 

No  society  are  chargeable  with  the  disapproved  conduct  of 
particular  members. 


CHAP.  II.]  SYNTAX.— RULE   XI. — VERBS.  185 

RULE  XL— VERBS. 

When  a  Verb  lias  two  or  more  nominatives  connected 
by  and^  it  must  agree  witii  them  in  the  plural  number : 

as, 

"  Judges  and  senates  have  been  bought  for  gold, 
Esteem  and  love  were  never  to  be  sold." — Pope. 

EXCEPTION    FIllST. 

When  two  or  more  nominatives  connected  by  a?i(Z,  servo  merely  to  describo 
one  person  or  thinar ;  they  are  in  apposition,  and  do  not  require  a  pl'Vyl 
verb :  as,  "  Tliis  philosopher  and  poet  was  banished  from  his  country."—"  loLl, 
tribute,  zndcustorn,  was  paid  unto  tliem." — Ezra,  iv,  20. 
"  Whose  icy  current  and  compulsive  course 
;Ne'er/eete  retiring  ebb,  but  keeps  due  on." — Shakspcare. 

EXCEPTIOlSr  SECOND. 

When  two  nominatives  connected  by  and,  are  emphatically  distinguished : 
they  belong  to  different  propositions,  and  (if  singular)  do  not  require  a  plural 
verb:  as,  ''■Ambition,  and  not  the  safety  of  the  state,  was  concerned.''^— Gold 
eiiiith. 

'^Ay,  and  no  too,  was  no  good  di-v'm\tY.^''—Shahspeare. 

'■'■Imvc,  and  love  only,  is  tiae  loan  for  love." — Young. 

EXCEPTION    THIRD. 

"When  two  or  more  nominatives  connected  by  and,  arc  preceded  by  the 
adjective  each,  every,  ovno;  they  are  taken  separately,  and  do  not  require  a 
plural  verb :  as,  "  When  no  part  of  their  substance,  and  »r>  one  of  their  prop- 
erties, is  the  aixme:'— Butler.  "  Every  limb  and  feature  appears  with  its 
respective  grace." — Steele. 

EXCEPTION   FOURTH. 

When  the  verb  separates  its  nominatives,  it  agrees  with  that  which  pie- 
cedes  it,  and  is  understood  to  the  rest ;  as, 

'■. Forth  iu  the  pleasing  spring. 

Thy  beauty  walk^,  thy  tenderness,  and  love." — Thomson. 

OBSERVATIONS    ON   RULE    XI. 

Obs.  1. — The  conjunction  is  sometimes  understood ;  as, 

".Art,  empire,  earth  itself,  to  change  are  doomed." — Beattie. 

Obs.  2.^In  Greek  and  Latin,  the  verb  frequently  agrees  witli  the  nearest 
nominative,  and  is  iinderstood  to  tlie  rest  ;  and  this  construction  is  some- 
times improperly  imitated  in  U/ufli-nh:  as,  "Ndi'I  6t  MENEl  TriVris,  cATrif,  dyd-rj, 
Tii  Toia  TaCru." — "  Nunc  vero  manet  fides,  spes,  charitas  ;  tria  hsec." — "  Now 
ahiiieth  faith,  hope,  charity;  these  three."—!  Cor.,  xiii,  13. 

Oi5S.  3.— When  the  nominatives  are  of  dif event  persons,  the  verb  agrees 
with  the  first  person  in  preference  to  the  second,  and  with  the  second  in 
preference  to  the  third  ;  for  thou  and  /(or  Tie,  thov,  and  /)  are  equivalent  to 
we;  and  thou  and  he  are  equivalent  to  you:  as,  "Why  speakest  thou  any 
more  of  thy  matters?  I  have  said,  th&u,  and  Ziba  divide  the  laud." — 2  Sam., 
iix,  29.    1.  c.,  "  divide  ye  the  laud." 

NOTES   TO   RULE   XI. 

Note  I. — When  two  subjects  or  antecedents  ar©  connected, 
one  of  which  is  taken  affirmatively,  and  the  other  negatively, 

16* 


186  INSTITUTES  OF  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.     [PART  IH. 

they  belong  to  different  propositions ;  and  the  verli  or  pronoun 
must  agree  with  the  affirmative  subject,  and  be  understood  to 
the  other :  as,  "  Diligent  industry,  and  not  mean  savings,  pro- 
duces honourable  competence." — "  Not  a  loud  voice,  but  strong 
2)roofs  bring  conviction." 

Note  II. — When  two  subjects  or  antecedents  are  connected 
by  as-iuell-as,  hut,  or  save,  they  belong  to  different  proposi- 
tions; and,  (unless  one  of  them  is  preceded  by  the  adverb 
not,)  the  verb  and  pronoun  must  agree  with  the  former  and 
be  understood  to  the  latter  :  as,  "  Veracity,  as  well  as  justice, 
is  to  be  our  rule  of  life." — Butler.  "  Nothing,  but  wailings, 
ivas  heard. — "  None,  but  thou,  can  aid  us." — "  No  mortal  wia*' 
save  he,  &c.,  had  e'er  survived  to  say  he  saw." —  W.  Scot 

Obs.  1. — The  conjunction  as,  when  it  connects  nominatives  that  are  in  ap- 
position, is  commonly  placed  at  the  beginning  of  the  sentence,  so  that  the 
verb  agrees  with  its  proper  nominative  following  the  explanatory  word; 
thus,  ''^Asapoet,  he  holds  a  high  rank."  —Murray.  But  when  this  conjunc- 
tion denotes  a  comparison  between  two  nominatives,  there  must  be  two  verbs 
expressed  or  understood,  each  agreeing  with  its  own  subject ;  as,  "  Such 
writers  as  he  [is]  have  no  reputation  among  the  learned." 

Ob3.  2.— Some  grammarians  say  that  but  and  save,  when  theydenote  ex- 
ception, should  govern  the  objective  case,  as  prepositions ;  but  this  is  not  ac- 
cording to  the  usage  of  the  best  authors.  The  objective  case  oi  nouns  being 
like  the  nominative,  the  point  can  be  proved  only  by  the  pronouns  ;  as, 
"There  is  none  butheaXouQ:'— Perkins'' s  Theology,  1608.  "There  is  none 
other  ly^t  he:'— Marl;  xii,  32.  (This  text  is  good  authority  as  regards  the 
case,  though  it  is  incorrect  in  an  other  respect :  it  should  have  been,  "There 
is  none  but  he,''  or,  "  There  is  tm  other  than  he.'')  "  No  man  hath  ascend^ed 
up  to  heaven,  but  lie  that  came  down  from  heaven."— John,  iii,  13.  "  Not 
that  any  man  hath  seen  the  Father,  save  he  irhich  is  o{  God."— John,  vi,  46. 
"  Few  can,  save  he  and  I."— Byron's  Werner.  "  There  is  none  justified,  but 
Tie  that  is  in  measure  smctiied." —Fenin(/ton.  Save,  as  a  conjunction,  is 
nearly  obsolete.  In  Hev.,  ii,  17,  we  read,  "  Which  no  mau  knoweth,  saving 
Tic  that  receiveth  it." 

Note  III. — When  two  or  more  subjects  or  antecedents  are 

preceded  by  the  adjective  each,  every  or  no,  they  are  taken 

separately,  and  require  a  verb  and  pronoun  in  the  singular 

number:  as, 

"And  every  sense,  and  every  heart  iS  joy." — Thomson. 

"  Each  beast,  each  insect,  happy  in  its  own." — Pope. 

Note  IV. — When  words  are  to  be  taken  conjointly  as  sub- 
jects or  antecedents,  the  conjunction  ayid  must  connect  them. 

Obs.— In  Latin,  cum  with  an  ablative,  sometimes  has  the  force  of  the  con- 
iunction  et  with  a  nominative ;  as,  "  Dux  cum  aliquot  principibus  capiuntur.' 
—Livy.  In  imitation  of  this  construction,  some  English  writers  have  sub- 
etituted  zeith  for  and,  and  varied  the  verb  accordingly ;  as,  "A  long  course 
of  time,  with  a  variety  of  accidents  and  circumstances,  are  requisite  to  pro- 
duce tliese  revolutions."— Zfi^me.  But,  as  the  preposition  makes  its  object 
only  an  adjunct  of  the  preceding  noun,  this  construction  cannot  be  justified. 

Note  V. — ^Two  or  more  distinct  subject  phrases  connected 
by  atid,  require  a  plural  verb :  as,  "  To  be  wise  in  our  own  eyes^ 


CHAP.  II.]     SYNTAX. — RULE  XI. — VEEBS.         18t 

to  he  wise  in  the  opinion  of  the  world,  and  to  he  wise  in  the  tight 
of  our  Creator,  are  thi'ee  things  so  very  different,  as  rarely  to 
coincide. " — Blair. 

FALSE  SYNTAX   UNDER  RULE   XI. — VERBS. 
Industry  and  frugality  leads  to  wealth. 

[FoRMtTLE. — iNot  proper,  because  the  verb  leads  is  in  the  singular  number,  and  does 
not  correctly  agree  with  its  two  nominatives,  industry  and  frugdlUy,  wliich  arc  con- 
nected by  and,  and  taken  conjointly.  But,  accordint  to  liule  11th,  "  When  a  verb  lias 
two  or  more  nominatives  connected  by  and,  it  must  atcree  with  them  in  the  plural 
number."  Therefore  leads  should  be  lead;  thus,  Industry  and  frugality  ^ead  to 
wsalth.] 

Temperance  and  exercise  preserves  health. 

Time  and  tide  waits  for  no  man. 

My  love  and  affection  towards  thee  remains  unaltered. 

Wealth,  honour,  and  happiness,  forsakes  the  indolent-, 

My  flesh  and  my  heart  fliileth. 

In  all  his  works,  there  is  sprightliness  and  vigour. 

Elizabeth's  meekness  and  humility  was  extraordinary. 

In  unity  consists  the  security  and  welfare  of  every  society. 

High  pleasures  and  luxurious  living  begets  satiety. 

Much  does  human  pride  and  folly  require  correction. 

Our  conversation  and  intercourse  with  the  world  is,  in  several 

respects,  an  education  for  vice. 
Occasional  release  from  toil,  and  indulgence  of  ease,  is  what 

nature  demands,  and  virtue  allows. 
What  generosity,  and  what  humanity,  was  then  displayed ! 

What  thou  desir'st, 

And  what  thou  fearst,  alike  destroys  all  hope. 

Under  Note  1. — Affirmation  toith  Negation. 

Wisdom,  and  not  wealth,  procure  esteem. 

Prudence,  and  not  pomp,  are  the  basis  of  his  fame. 

Not  fear,  but  labour  have  overcome  him. 

The  decency,  and  not  the  abstinence,  make  the  difference. 

Not  her  beauty,  but  her  talents  attracts  attention. 

It  is  her  talents,  and  not  her  beauty,  that  attracts  attention. 

It  is  her  beauty,  and  not  her  talents,  that  attract  attention. 

Under  Note  2. — As  Well  As,  But,  or  Save. 
His  constitution,  as  well  as  his  fortune,  require  care. 
Their  religion,  as  well  as  their  manners,  were  ridiculed. 
Every  one,  but  thou,  hadst  been  legally  discharged. 
The  buyer,  as  well  as  the  seller,  render  themselves  liable. 
All  songsters,  save  the  hooting  owl,  was  mute. 
None,  but  thou,  O  mighty  prince  !  canst  avert  the  blow. 
Nothing,  but  frivolous  amusements,  please  the  indolent. 
Csesar,  as  well  as  Cicero,  were  admired  for  their  eloquence. 


188  INSTITUTES   OF  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR.     [PART  III. 

Under  Note  3. — Each^  Every,  or  No. 

Each  day,  and  each  hour,  bring  their  portion  of  duty. 
Every  house,  and  even  every  cottage,  were  plundered. 
Every  thought,  every  word,  and  every  action,  will  be  brought 

into  judgement,  whether  they  be  good  or  evil. 
The  time  will  come,  when  no  oppressor,  no  unjust  man,  will 
be  able  to  screen  themselves  from  punishment. 
No  bandit  fierce,  no  tyrant  mad  with  pride, 
No  cavern'd  hermit,  rest  self-satisfied. 

Under  Note  4. — And  Required. 

In  this  afiliir,  perseverance  with  dexterity  were  requisite. 

Town  or  counti-y  are  equally  agreeable  to  me. 

Sobriety  with  humility  lead  to  honour. 

The    king,   with  the  lords,   and  the  commons,  compose   the 

British  parliament. 
The  man  with  his  whole  family  are  dead. 
A  small  house  in  addition  to  a  trifling  annuity,  are  still  granted 

him. 

Under  Note  5. — Distinct  Subject  Phrases. 

To  profess,  and  to  possess,  is  very  different  things. 

To  do  justly,  to  love  mercy,  and  to  walk  humbly  with  God,  is 

duties  of  universal  obligation. 
To  be  round  or  square,  to  be  solid  or  fluid,  to  be  large  or 

small,  and  to  be  moved  swiftly  or  slowly,  is  all  equally 

alien  from  the  nature  of  thought. 

RULE  XII.— VERBS. 

When  a  Verb  bas  two  or  more  singular  nominatives 
connected  by  or  or  nor,  it  must  agree  with  them  in  the 
singular  number :  as,  *'  Fear  or  jealousj  affects  him." 

OBSERVATION    ON    RULE    XII. 

To  this  rule  there  are  properly  tw  excepiions.  But  in  the  learned  languages, 
ii  plural  verb  is  often  employed  with  singular  nominatives  thus  connected  j 
as, 

"  Tune  nee  mens  mihi,  nee  color 
Certa  sede  manent.^'' — Horace. 

And  the  best  scholars  have  sometimes  improperly  imitated  this  construo* 
tiou  in  English  ;  as, 

"  He  comes — nor  want  nor  cold  his  course  delmj  ; 
Ilide,  blushing  Glory  !  hide  Pultowa's  day."— Z*r.  Jdhnson. 

NOTES    TO    RULE    XII. 

Note  I. — When  a  verb  has  nominatives  of  different  persons 
or  numbers,  connected  by  or  or  nor.,  it  must  agree  with  that 


CHAP.  II.]         SYNTAX.— RULE  XII.— VERBS.  189 

which  is  placed  next  to  it,  and  be  understood  to  the  rest,  in 
the  person  and  number  required ;  as,  "  Neither  he  nor  his 
brothers  were  there." — "  Neither  you  nor  I  am  concerned." — 
"  That  neither  they  nor  ye  also  die." — Numb  ,  xviii,  3. 

Obs.  1. — Wlien  the  latter  nominative  is  parentlietical,  tlie  verb  agrees  with 
the  former  only ;  as,  "One  example  for  ten)  say^  nothing  against  the  uni- 
versal opinion." — Leigh  Hunt.  "  And  we  (or  future  ages)  may  possibly  hava 
a  proof  of  it."— i>/).  Butlei: 

Obs.  2.— When  the  alternative  is  merely  in  the  words,  not  in  the  thot/ffJit, 
the  terms  are  virtually  in  apposition,  and  the  principal  nominative  alone 
controls  the  verb ;  but  there  is  always  a  harshness  in  this  mixture  of  ditler- 
ent  numbers:  as,  "  K  parathesis,  or  brackets,  cwisisfo  of  two  angular  strokes, 
or  hooks,  enelosing  one  or  more  words."—  Whiting.  "  To  show  us  that  our 
own  schemes,  or  prudence,  have  no  share  in  our  advancements." — Addison. 
" The  Mexican  A;/wvs,  or  picture-writing,  represent  things,  not  words;  they 
exhibit  images'  to  the  eye,  not  ideas  "to  the  understanding." — Murray's 
Gram.,  p.  243. 

Note  II. — But  when  the  nominatives  require  different  forms 
of  the  verb,  it  is  in  general  more  elegant  to  express  the  verb, 
or  its  auxiliary,  in  connexion  with  each  of  them  ;  as,  "Either 
thou  art  to  blame,  or  I  am.''' — "  Neither  ivere  their  numbers, 
nor  ivas  their  destination  known." 

Note  III. — ^The  speaker  should  generally  mention  himself 
last ;  as,  "  Thou  or  /  must  go." — "  He  then  addressed  his  dis- 
course to  my  father  and  me.'"'  But  in  confessing  a  fault  he 
may  assume  the  first  place ;  as,  "  /  and  Robert  did  it." — M. 
Edgeworth. 

Note  IV. — ^Two  or  more  distinct  stibject  phrases  connected 
by  or  or  nor,  require  a  singular  verb  ;  as,  "  That  a  drunkard 
should  be  poor,  or  that  a  fop  should  be  ignorant,  is  not  strange." 

FALSE   SYNTAX   UNDER   RULE   XII. — VERBS, 
Ignorance  or  negligence  have  caused  this  mistake. 

[FoRMTJLE.— Not  proper,  because  the  verb  haw  caused  is  of  the  plural  number,  and 
does  not  correctly  agree  with  its  two  nominatives,  ignoraneo  and  negligence,  which 
are  connected  by  or,  and  taken  disjunctively.  But,  accordin!i  to  Rule  12th,  "When  a 
verb  has  two  or  more  singular  nominatives  connected  by  or  or  nor.  It  must  agieo 
with  them  In  the  singular  number."  Therefore,  have  caused  should  be  has  caused ; 
thus,  Ignorance  or  negligence  has  caused  this  mistake.] 

Neither  imprudence,  credulity,  nor  vanity,  have  ever  been  im- 
puted to  him. 

What  the  heart  or  the  imagination  dictate,  flows  readily. 

Neither  authority  nor  analogy  support  such  an  opinion. 

Either  ability  or  inclination  were  wanting. 

Redundant  grass  or  heath  afford  abundance  to  their  cattle. 

The  returns  of  kindness  are  sweet ;  and  there  are  neither  hon- 
our, nor  virtue,  nor  utility,  in  repelling  them. 

The  sense  or  drifl  of  a  proposition,  often  depend  upon  a  single 
letter. 


190  INSTITUTES  OF   ENGLISH   GRAMMAR.     [PART  IIL 

Under  Note  1 . — Nominatives  that  Disagree. 

Neither  he  nor  you  was  there. 
Either  the  boys  or  I  were  in  fault. 
Neither  he  nor  I  intends  to  be  present. 
Neither  the  captain  nor  the  sailors  was  saved. 
Whether  one  person  or  more  was  concerned  in  the  business, 
does  not  yet  appear. 

Under  Note  2. — Complete  the  Concord. 

Are  they  or  I  expected  to  be  there  ? 

Neither  he,  nor  am  I,  capable  of  it. 

Either  he  has  been  imprudent,  or  his  associates  vindictive. 

Neither  were  their  riches,  nor  their  influence  great. 

Under  Note  3. — Place  of  the  First  Person. 

I  and  my  father  were  riding  out. 

The  premiums  were  given  to  me  and  George. 

I  and  Jane  are  invited. 

They  ought  to  invite  me  and  my  sister. 

We  dreamed  a  dream  in  one  night,  I  and  he. 

Under  Note  4. — Distmct  Subject  Phrases. 

To  practise  tale-bearing,  or  even  to  countenance  it,  are  great 

injustice. 
To  reveal  secrets,  or  to  betray  one's  friends,  are  contemptible 

perfidy. 

RULE  XIII.— VERBS. 

When  Yerbs  are  connected  by  a  conjunction,  they 
must  either  agree  in  mood,  tense,  and  form,  or  have 
separate  nominatives  expressed :  as,  "  He  himself  held 
the  plough,  sowed  the  grain,  and  attended  the  reapers." — ' 
*'  She  was  proud,  but  she  is  novr  humble." 

EXCEPTION. 

Verbs  differing  in  mood,  tense,  or  form,  may  sometimes  agree  with  the 
same  nominative,  especially  if  the  simplest  verbs  be  placed  first ;  as, 
"  What  nothing  earthly  gives  or  can  destroy.'''' — Pope. 
"  Some  are,  and  must  be,  greater  than  the  rest." — Id. 

OBSERVATIONS    ON   RULE    XIII. 

Ob9.  1. — "When  separate  nominatives  are  expressed,  distinct  sentences  are 
formed,  and  the  verbs  have  not  a  common  construction.  Those  examples 
which  require  a  repetition  of  the  nominative  might  be  corrected  equally  well 
by  Note  5th  to  Rule  9th. 

Obs.  2. — Those  parts  which  are  common  to  several  verbs,  are  generally  ex- 
pressed to  the  first,  and  understood  to  the  rest :  as,  "  Every  sincere  endea- 
vour to  amend  shall  be  assisted,  [sjtall  be]  accepted,  and  [sJiatl  be]  rewarded," 


CHAP.  II.]  SYNTAX. — RULE   XIII. — VERBS.  191 

"Honourably  do  the  best  you  can"  [(fo].— "He  thouffbt  aa  I  did"  [t7dnl].— 
•'  You  have  seen  it,  but  I  have  not"  [sten  t<].— "  If  you  will  go,  1  will"  [go]. 

NOTES    TO    RULE    XIII. 

Note  I. — The  preterit  should  not  be  employed  to  form  the 
compound  tenses,  nor  should  the  perfect  participle  be  used  for 
the  preterit.  Thus:  say,  "To  have  gone,"" — not,  "To  havo 
wen^;"  and,  "I  did  it," — not,  "I  dotie  it." 

Note  II. — Care  should  be  taken,  to  give  every  verb  its  ap- 
propriate form  and  signification.  Thus  :  say,  "  He  lai/  by  the 
fire," — not,  "  He  laid  by  the  fire  ;" — "  He  had  entered  into  the 
connexion," — not,  "  He  was  entered  into  the  connexion  ;" — "I 
would  rather  5/ay," — not,  "  I  had  rather  stay.'''' 

Obs. — Several  verbs  which  resemble  each  other  in  form,  are  frequently 
confounded  :  as,  t.oJlef,  tojiy  ;  to  lay,  to  lie;  to  sit,  to  set ;  to  fall,  to/ell;  to 
rend, 
tear 

tenses :  .    ,  ,         , 

have  seen  him,"  for,  "  If  I  fiad  seen  him."    All  such  errors  are  to  be  corrected 
by  the  foregoing  note. 

FALSE   SYNTAX   UNDER  RULE   XIII. — VERBS. 
They  would  neither  go  in  themselves,  nor  suffered  others  to 
enter. 

[FoRMDXE. — Not  proper,  because  tlio  two  verbs  would  go  and  suffered,  which  ava 
connected  without  separate  nominatives,  do  not  a^iee  in  mood.  But  according  to 
Eule  13th,  "When  verbs  are  connected  by  a  conjuiiction,  they  must  either  agree  in 
mood,  tense,  and  form,  or  have  separate  nominatives  expressed."  The  sentence  is  best* 
corrected  by  changing  Ktiifered  to  would  safer ;  {would  understood ;)  thus,  Tliey 
would  neither  go  in  themselves,  nor  S'uffer  others  to  enter.] 

Doth  he  not  leave  the  ninety  and  nine,  and  goeth  into  the 
mountains,  and  seekoth  that  which  is  gone  astray  ? 

Did  he  not  tell  thee  his  fault,  and  entreated  thee  to  forgive 
him  1 

If  he  understands  the  business,  and  attend  to  it,  wherein  is  he 
deficient  ? 

The  day  is  approaching,  and  hastens  upon  us,  in  which  we 
must  give  an  account  of  our  stewardship. 

If  thou  dost  not  turn  unto  the  Lord,  but  forget  him  who  re- 
membered thee  in  thy  distress,  great  will  be  thy  condemna- 
tion.— Barclay. 

There  are  a  few  who  have  kept  their  integrity  to  the  Lord,  and 
prefer  his  truth  to  all  other  enjoyments. 

This  report  was  current  yesterday,  and  agrees  with  what  we 
heard  before. 

Virtue  is  generally  praised,  and  would  be  generally  practised 
also,  if  men  were  wise, 

*  EiTors  under  this  rule  may  generally  be  corrected  in  three  ways:  1.  By  changing 
the  first  verb,  to  agree  with  the  second— 2.  By  changing  the  se-cond  verb,  to  agree 
with  the  first— 3.  By  inserting  tho  nominative.    The  form  preferred,  is  in  the  Key. 


i92  INSTITUTES   OF   ENGLISH   GHAMMAII.     [PART  IIL 

Under  Note  1. — Preterits  and  Participles. 

He  Would  have  went  with  us,  if  we  had  invited  him. 
They  have  chose  the  part  of  honour  and  virtue. 
He  soon  begun  to  be  weary  of  having  nothing  to  do. 
Somebody  has  broke  my  slate. 
I  seen  him  when  he  done  it. 

Under  Note  2. — Adapt  Form  to  Sense. 

He  was  entered  into  the  conspiracy. 
The  American  planters  grow  cotton  and  rice. 
The  report  is  predicated  on  truth. 
I  entered  the  room  and  set  down. 
Go  and  lay  down,  my  son. 

With  such  books,  it  will  always  be  difficult  to  learn  children  to 
read. 

RULE  XIV.— PARTICIPLES. 

Participles  relate  to  nouns  or  pronouns,  or  else  are 
governed  by  prepositions :  as,  Elizabeth's  tutor,  at  one 
time  paying  her  a  visit,  found  her  employed  in  reading 
Plato." — Hume. 

EXCEPTION   FIRST. 

A  participle  sometimes  relates  to  a  preceding  phrase  or  sentence,  of  which 
it  torms  no  part ;  as, 

"  But  ever  to  do  ill  our  sole  delight, 
As  beingi  the  contrary  to  his  high  will." — Milton. 

EXCEPTION    SECOND. 

With  an  infinitive  denoting  being  or  action  in  the  abstract,  a  participle  is 
eomctimes  also  taken  abstracllij ;  (that  is,  without  reference  to  any  particular 
noun,  pronoun,  or  other  subject;)  as,  "  To  seem  compelled,  is  disagreeable." 
— "  To  keep  alwa.js  prayinff  aloud,  is  plainly  impossible." 

OBSERVATIONS    ON   RULE    XIV. 

Obs.  1. — To  this  rule  there  are  properly  no  other  exceptions  ;  for  we  cannot 
agree  with  Murray  that  it  is  strictly  correct  to  make  participles  in  ing  the 
subjects  or  objects  of  verbs,  while  they  retain  the  government  and  adjuncts  of 
participUs  •  as,  "  Not  attending  to  this  rule,  is  the  cause  of  a  very  common 
error."— j/wr/'ayV  Key.  "  He  abhorred  being  in  debt." — Ibid.  "  CamlUng 
and  objecting  upon  any  subject,  is  much  easier  than  clearing  up  difficulties." 
—Bp.  ButUr.  This  mixed  and  erroneous  construction  of  the  participle,  is  i 
great  blemish  in  the  style  of  several  English  authors.  It  is  at  best  a  usolet^s 
anomaly,  which  it  is  always  easy  to  avoid;  as,  ^'■Inattention  to  this  rule  is 
the  cause  of  a  very  common  error." — "He  abhorred  debt.'''' — "  To  cavil  and 
object  upon  any  subject  is  much  easier  than  to  clear  up  difficulties." 

Obs.  2. — The  word  to  which  the  participle  relates,  is  sometimes  under- 
stood ;  as,  "  Granting  this  to  be  true,  what  is  to  be  inferred  from  it  V — Mur- 
ray. That  is,  '■'■  I  granting  this,  to  be  true,  as^  what  is  to  be  infen'ed  from 
itf" — "  The  very  chin  was,  [/,]  inodiesilj  speaking,  \_say,'\  as  long  as  my  whole 
face." — Addison.  Some  grammarians  have  erroueously  taught  that  such 
J)articiples  are  put  absolute. 


\ 


CHAP.  II.]       SYNTAX. — RULE  XIV. — PARTICIPLES.  193 

Obs.  S. — Participles  are  almost  always  placed  after  the  -ivords  on  which  their 
' "^instruction  depends,  but  sometimes  they  arc  introduced  before  tlieni;  us, 

^^  Immured  iu  cj-press  shades,  a  sorcerer  dwells." — MiUon, 
NOTES    TO    RULE    XIV. 

^  Note  I. — Actlvo  Participles  have  tho  same  government  M 
the  verbs  from  which  they  arc  derived;  tho  preposition  of, 
therefore,  should  never  bo  used  after  the  participle,  when  tho 
verb  does  not  require  it.  Thus,  in  phrases  lilvc  tho  following, 
©/"is  improper  :  "  Keeping  of  one  day  in  seven," — "  By  prcacli- 
ing  o/"  repentance," — "  They  left  beating  o/Paul." 

.i'  Ob3. — "When  participles  are  compounded  with  something  that  does  not  be- 
long to  tho  verb,  they  become  adjectives;  and,  as  such,  tliey  cannot  govern 
an  object  after  them.  The  followiag  sentence  is  therefore  inaccurate : 
''When  CaiuB  did  any  thing  unbecoming  his  dipnity." — Joneses  Church  IJh- 
iory.  Such  errors  arc  to  bo  corrected  either  by  Note  15th  to  Kule  4th,  or  by 
changing  tho  particle  prefixed;  as,  "  Unbecoming  ilo  lu3  dignity,"  or,  "i\oi 
becoming  his  dignity," 

i^  Note  II. — When  a  transit. e  participle  is  converted  into  a 
noun,  o/must  be  inserted  to  govern  the  oljcct  following. 

f  Ob9.  1. — An  imperfect  or  a  compound  participle,  preceded  by  an  article, 
nn  adjective,  or  a  noun  or  pronoun  of  tho  possessivo  case,  becomes  a  verhal 
noun;  and,  as  such,  it  cannot  govern  an  object  after  it.  A  word  which  may 
be  tho  objaet  of  ilia  participle  ia  its  proper  construction,  requires  the  prepo- 
eitioti  f/j  to  connect  it  with  tho  -verbal  noun  ;  as,  1.  The  Paeticiple:  "  Mov- 
shping  iJola,  tho  Jews  sinned." — "  Thus  u-orshipiny  idols, — In  worshipinj 
idols, — or,  i?'/wwsAi^ira.<7  idols,  they  Binned."  2.  The  Verbal  Noun  :  '■^  The 
tmrshlpim  ofh'/Ai, — Such  worshiping  r/'idols, — or,  Their  zcorahiping  of  idols,, 
was  sinful." — ''//I  the  worshiping  of  idols,  thero  is  sin." 

Obs.  S.^When  tho  use  ot  tho  preposition  produces  ambiguiiy  or  harsh- 
ness, tho  expressioa  must  bo  varied.  Thus,  the  Bentencc,'"He  meutiona 
AI'^^)i;o^i's  MV'i^iw^  fi/ a  commentary,"  is  Loth  ambiguous  and  awkward.  If 
the  preposition  bo  omitted,  tho  word  uriting  will  have  n  clonble  construc- 
tion, which  is  inadmissible.  Somo  would  say,  "He  ratnilou?, Kewton  ivrlling 
acommentary."  Tliis  is  still  worse  ;  because  it  makes  the  leading  word  in 
Benso  the  adjunct  iu  construction.  The  meaning  may  bo  correctly  expressed 
thus:  '_'  He  mentions  ihit  Newtori  wrote  a  commentary."  " By  liis  studying 
the  Scriptures,  he  becime  wise."  Here  his  serves  o"nly  to  render  the  sen- 
tenco  incorrect :  all  such  posseasives  are  to  be  expunged  by  Note  5th  to  Eulo 
19  th. 

Obs.  3. — ^TVo  sometimes  find  a  participle  that  takes  tho  eamo  case  after  as 
before  it,  converted  into  a  verbal  noun,  and  the  latter  word  retained  un- 
changed in  connexion  with  it;  as,  "  I  have  somo  recollection  of  Ins  father's 
being  0.  judge." — "  To  prevent  its  being  a  dry  detail  of  terms."— ^«cL  Tha 
noun  after  t!ie_ verbal,  is  in  aprjosition  with  the  possessive  going  before. 
Nouns  that  are  in  apposition  with  the  possessivo  case,  do  not  admit  the  pos- 
sessive sign.  But  the  above-mentioned  construction  is  anomalous,  and  per- 
haps it  would  be  better  to  avoid  it;  thus:  "  I  have  some  recollection  that 
liis  father  ivas  a  judge." — "  To  prevent  it  from  being  a  dry  detail  of  terms." 

0b3.  4. — The  verbal  noun  should  not  be  accompanied  bv  any  adjuncts  of 
„  . — 1 ... _.•.:„!.    .__i___  .,  -_  ,.   .  ,_-„   ....    ..    _  •  ...  ''Tho 

hrasa 


-  -   .  -     --.,         img  ot  Jiirge  numbers." 

Yet  if  we  say,  "  For  reading  larce  numbers  th&  mors  easily,''''  the  construc- 
tion is  different,  and  not  inaccurate. 

Note  KI. — A  participle  should  not  be  used  where  the  iufin- 

9 


194  INSTITUTES   OF  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR.     [PART  III. 

itive  mood,  the  verbal  noun,  a  common  substantive,  or  a 
phrase  equivalent,  will  better  express  the  meaning. 

Obs.  1. — Participles  tliiit  have  become  nouns,  maybe  used  as  such  with  or 
without  the  article ;  as,  spelling^  reading,  writing,  draioing.  But  we  some- 
times find  those  which  retain  the  government  and  the  adjuncts  of  participles, 
used  as  nouns  before  or  after  verbs  ;  as,  '■'■I'Jxciting  such  disturbances,  is  un- 
lawful."—" Rebellion  is  rising  against  government."  This  mongrel  construc- 
tion is  liable  to  ambiguity,  and  ought  to  be  avoided.  The  infinitive  mood, 
the  verbal  or  some  "other  noun,  or  a  clause  introduced  by  the  conjunction 
that,  will  generally  express  the  idea  in  a  better  manner;  as,  '■'■To  excite  sucli 
disturbances, — The  exciting  /if  snch  disturbances, — 17te  excitation  c>f  such  dis- 
turbances,—or.  That  one  should  excite  such  disturbances,  is  unlawful." 

Obs.  2. — After  verbs  signifying  to  persevere  or  to  desist,  the  participle  in 
i7ig,  relating  to  the  nominative,  may  be  used  in  stead  of  the  inlinitive  con- 
nected to  the  verb;  aSj  "  So  when  they  continued  asking  him." — John,  viii, 
7.  Here  continued  is  uiti-ansitive,  and  asking  relates  to  they.  Greek,  iis  H 
evt^icunf  cpi.noifTcs  airov.  Latin,  "  Cum  ergo  parse  verarcntiwferw^aHfeseum." 
But  in  sentences  like  the  following,  the  participle  seems  to  be  improperly 
made  the  oiycc^  of  the  verb :  "I  intend  doing  it." — "I  remember  meeting 
him."  Better,  "  I  intend  to  do  it." — "  I  remember  tohave  met  him."  Verba 
do  not  govern  participles. 

Obs.  3. — After  verbs  of  beginning,  omitting,  and  avoiding,  some  writera 
employ  the  participle  in  English,  though  the  analogy  of  general  grammar 
evidently  requires  in  buch  cases  the  inlinitive  or  a  noun;  as,  "It  is  no\v 
above  three  years  since  he  begun,  printing.'''' — Dr.  Adcmi's  Fref.  to  Rotu.  An- 
tiquities. "He  omits  (7i(v'«^  an  account  of  them." — Tooke''s  D'lv.  of  Parley^ 
\o].  i,  p.  251.  "He  studied  to  avoid  express'mg  himself  too  severely." — 
Murray'' s  Gram.,  Svo,  Vol.  i,  p.  104.  If  these  examples  are  good  English,  (for 
the  point  is  questionable,)  tlio  verbs  are  all  intransitive,  and  the  participles 
relate  to  the  nominatives  going  before,  as  in  the  text  quoted  in  the  preceding 
observation.  But  Murray,  not  understanding  this  construction,  or  not  ob- 
serving what  verbs  admit  of  it,  has  very  unskillfully  laid  it  down  as  a  rule, 
that,  "The  participle  witli  its  adjuncts,  may  be  considered  as  a  sulstantive 
phrase  in  the  objective  case,  governed  by  the  preposition  or  verb  ,•"  whereaa 
he  himself,  on  the  jjreeediug  page,  had  adopted  troni  Lowth  a  different  doc- 
trine, and  cautioned  the  learner  against  treating  words  in  ing,  "as  if  they 
were  of  an  amphibia  us  species,  partly  nouns  and  partly -y«-fc  ;"  that  is,  "partly 
nou7is  and  partly  particvples  ;"  for,  according  to  Murray,  participles  are  verbs. 
The  term  '■^substantive  phrase''''  is  a  solecism,  invented  merely  to  designate 
this  anomalous  construction.  Copying  Loivth  again,  he  defines  a  phrase  to 
be  "two  or  more  words  rightly  i^ut  together;"  and  whatsoever  words  are 
rightly  put  together,  may  be  regularly  parsed.  But  how  can  one  indivisible 
word  be  made  two  ditferent  parts  of  speech  at  once?  And  is  not  this  the 
situation  of  every  transitive  participle  tliat  is  made  either  the  subject  or  the 
object  of  a  verb  ?  Adjuncts  never  alter  either  the  nature  or  the  construction 
of  the  words  on  which  they  depend ;  and  partieiyjial  nou.ns  always  differ 
from  participles  in  both.  The  former  express  aciicas  as  iAirtj^s /  the  latter 
attribute  them  to  ihe'ir  agents  or  recipients. 

Note  IV. — In  the  use  of  particij^les  and  of  verbal  nouns,  tho 
leading  word  in  sense,  should  always  be  made  tho  leading  or 
governing  word  in  the  construction. 

Obs. — A  participle  construed  after  tho  nominative  or  tho  obje«tive  case,  is 
not  equivalent  to  a  verbid  noun  governing  the  possessive.  There  is  some- 
times a  nice  distinction  to  be  observed  in  the  apiilication  of  these  twocon- 
Btructions.  For  tlie  leading  word  in  sense  should  not  be  made  the  adjunct 
in  construction.  The  following  sentences  exhibit  a  disreGjard  to  tliis  prin- 
ciple, and  are  both  inaccurate :  "  lie  felt  his  strength's  declining." — "  He  was 
eeasible  of  his  strength  deeliuing."    In  the  former  sentence  the  jxowi  strength 


CHAP.  II.]   SYNTAX. — RULE  :^IV. — PARTICIPLES.     195 

SlioTiltl  be  in  tlie  objective  case,  governed  hj/elt ;  and  in  the  latter,  in  tha 
possessive,  governed  by  declining. 

NoteV. — Participles,  in  general,  however  construed,  should 
have  a  clear  reference  to  the  proper  subject  of  the  being,  action, 
or  passion.  The  following  sentence  is  therefore  faulty  :  "  By 
giviiig  way  to  sin,  trouble  is  encountered."  This  suggests  that 
trouble  gives  way  to  sin.  It  should  be,  "  By  giving  way  to  sin, 
we  encounter  trouble." 

Note  VI. — The  preterit  of  irregular  verbs  should  not  bo 
used  for  the  ]ierfect  participle :  as,  "  A  certificate  wrote  on 
parchment" — for,  '•  A  certificate  written  on  parchment."  This 
error  should  be  carefully  avoided. 

KoTE  VII. — Perfect  participles  being  variously  formed,  care 
should  be  taken  to  express  them  agreeably  to  the  best  usage : 
thus,  earnt,  snatchf,  checkt,  snapt,  mixt^  tost,  are  erroneously 
"written  for  earned,  snatched,  checked,  snapped,  mixed,  tossed ; 
and holden,foicghien,proven,aTGno\v mostly  superseded  by  heldy 
fought,  proved. 

FALSE   SYNTAX   UNDER   RULE   XIV. — PARTICIPLES. 
Examples  under  Note  1. — Expunge  Of. 
In  forming  of  his  sentences,  he  was  very  3xact. 

[FoRMiTLE. — Not  proper,  because  the  preposition  of\%  used  after  the  participle /orm- 
i?i(7,  whose  verb  does  not  require  it.  But,  according  to  Note  1st  under  Kule  14th, 
"Participles  have  the  Paine  government  as  the  verbs  from  which  they  are  derived ; 
the  preposition  of,  therefore,  should  not  be  used  after  the  participle,  when  tlic  verb 
does  not  require  it."  Therefore,  <>/■  should  be  omitted ;  thus,  lii  formiug  his  sentences, 
Lo  was  very  exact.] 

By  observing  of  truth,  you  will  command  respect. 

I  could  not,  for  my  heart,  forbear  pitying  of  him. 

I  heard  them  discussing  of  this  subject. 

By  consulting  of  the  best  authors,  he  became  learned. 

Here  are  rules,  by  observing  of  which,  you  may  avoid  error. 

Under  Note  2. — Insert  Of. 
Their  consent  was  necessary  for  the  raising  any  supplies. 
Thus  the  saving  a  great  nation  devolved  on  a  husbandman. 
It  is  an  overvaluing  ourselves,  to  decide  upon  every  thing. 
The  teacher  does  not  allow  any  calling  ill  names. 
That  burning  the  capitol  was  a  wanton  outrage. 
May  nothing  hinder  our  receiving  so  great  a  good. 
My  admitting  the  fact  will  not  affect  the  argument. 
Cain's  killing  his  brother,  originated  in  envy. 

Under  Note  3. —  Change  the  Expression, 
Caesar  carried  off  the  treasures,  which  his  opponent  had  nea^ 
lected  taking  with  him. —  Ooldsmith. 


196  INSTITUTES   OF  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.     [PART  ILL 

It  is  dangerous  playing  with  edge  tools. 
I  intend  returning  in  a  few  days. 
Suffering  needlessly  is  never  a  duty. 
Nor  is  it  wise  complaining. —  Coivper. 
I  well  remember  telling  you  so. 
Doing  good  is  a  Christian's  vocation, — H.  More. 
Piety  is  constantly  endeavouring  to  live  to  God,     It  is  earnest^ 
ly  desiring  to  do  his  will,  and  not  our  own. — Id. 

Under  Note  4. — The  Leading  Word. 

There  is  no  harm  in  womei.i  knowing  about  these  things. 
They  did  not  give  notice  of  the  pupil  leaving. 
The  sun's  darting  his  beams  through  my  window,  awoke  me. 
The  maturity  of  the  sago  tree  is  known  by  the  leaves  being 
covered  with  a  delicate  white  powder. 

Under  Note  5. — Reference  vf  Participles. 
Sailing  up  the  river,  the  whole  town  may  be  seen. 
Being  conscious  of  guilt,  death  becomes  "terrible. 
By  yielding  to  temptation,  our  peace  is  sacrificed. 
In  loving  our  enemies,  no  man's  blood  is  shed. 
By  teaching  the  young,  they  are  prepared  for  usefulness. 

Under  Note  G. — Preterits  for  Partici2)les, 
A.  nail  well  drove  will  support  a  great  weight. 
See  here  a  hundred  sentences  stole  from  my  work. 
I  found  the  water  entirely  froze,  and  the  pitcher  broke. 
Being  forsook  by  my  friends,  I  had  no  other  resource. 

Under  Note  7. — Form  of  Participles. 
Till  by  barbarian  deluges  o'erflown. 
Like  the  lustre  of  diamonds  sat  in  gold. 
A.  beam  ethereal,  sullied  and  absorpt. 
With  powerless  wings  around  them  wrapt. 
Error  learnt  from  preaching,  is  held  as  sacred  truth. 

RULE  XV.— ADVERBS, 

Adverbs  relate  to  verbs,  participles,  adjectives,  or 
other  adverbs:  as,  "Any  passion  that  habitually  Ax&com- 
poses  our  temper,  or  unfits  us  for  'properly  discharging 
the  duties  of  life,  has  most  certainly  gained  a  very  danger- 
ous ascendency." — Blair, 

EXCEPTION    FIRST. 
The  adverbs  yea  and  yea,  expressiug  a  simple  afBrmction,  and  tbe  adverba 


CHAP.  II.]    SYNTAX. — RULE  XV. — ADVERBS.      197 

no  and  nay,  cxprcssincr  n  simplo  nopfilio",  ni'o  nlwnys  independent.  They 
generally  answer  a  question,  unci  arc  equivalent  to  iv  wliolo  Bcnteuce.  Is  it 
clear,  that  they  ought  to  be  called  adverbs  i    M) 

EXCEPTION    SECOND. 

TliG  vrord  amen,  ■n-hich  is  commonly  called  an  adverb,  is  often  used  inde- 
pendently at  the  beginning  or  end  of  a  deelarution  or  prayer;  and  is  itself  a 
prayer,  meamng,  so  lei  it  be. 

OBSERVATIONS    ON    RULE    XV. 

Obs.  1.— On  tliis  rule  Dr.  Adam  remarks,  "  Adverbs  eomotimcs  likcwisO 
qualify  s«fotow^iws;"  and  gives  Latin  examples  of  the  following  import: 
'■'■Womav plainly o.a  orator;"— "7/'(/^y/ Metellus;"—" 2o-7/w;rotc  mornmg ;"— 
^'■Yesterdaij  morning."  Y>\\t  this  doctrine  is  not  well  proved  by  such  imper- 
fect phrases,  nor  can  it  ever  be  consistently  admitted ;  because  it  destroys 
the  cliaracteristic  diffarenco  between  an  adjectice  and  an  adoerb. 

Obs.  2.— Whenever  any  of  those  words  which  are  eonmionly  used  adverb- 
ially, are  made  to  relate  directly  to  nouns  or  pronouns,  they  must  be  reckoned 
adjectives,  ixnA  parsed  by  Rule  4th;  as,  "The  above*  verbs." — Dr.  Adam. 
^''Godi  only  .'"—Bible,  ''lla  alone."— Id.  "  A/«r  country."— /</.  "Aowino, 
— No  new  thing,— iVo  greater  joy." — Id.  "Nothing  eke."— Blair.  ^'■To- 
morrow noon." — iScott.  "  This  beneath  world." — Shah.  "  Calamity  enouffh.''^ 
—Tr.  of  Salltist.     "  My  JiitJier  way." 

Obs.' 3. — When  words  of  an  adverbial  character  are  used  after  the  manner 
of  nouns,  they  must  be  parsed  as  nouns  and  not  as  eidverbs;  as,  "The  Son  of 
God — was  not  yea  and  nai/,  hnt  in  him  was  yea." — Bible. ^  "For  a  great 
while  to  come." — Id.  "  On  this  perhaps,  this  peradventure  infamous  for  lies."^ 
—  Young.  "From  tho  extremest  wiwarii  of  thine  bead." — Sliak.  "Frateof 
mv  whereahovt." — Id.  "  An  eternal  now  docs  iilways  last." — Cowley.  "  Dis- 
course requires  an  anhnated  no." — Cowper. 

Obs.  4. — Adverbs  sometimes  relate  to  verbs  vnderstood ;  as,  "  The  former 
has  written  correctly;  but  the  latter,  elegantly."  "And,  [I  say]  truly,  if 
they  had  been  mindful  of  that  country  from  whence  they  came  out,  they 
might  have  had  opportunity  to  have  returned." — Ileh.,  xi,  15. 

Obs.  5. — To  abbreviate  expressions,  and  give  them  vivacity,  verbs  of  self- 
motion  (as  no,  come,  rise,  get,  &c.)  arc  sometimes  suppressed,  being  suggested 
to  the  mind  by  an  emphatic  adverb ;  as, 

"I'll  hence  to  London  on  a  serious  ■mo.iiQr."—S7iahspeare. 
"l"lli».    I'll  *'«•.     Follow  your  friend's  counsel.    Vliin." — Id. 
"Away  old  man;  give  me  tliy  hand;  away." — Id. 
"  Would  you  youtili  and  beauty  stay, 

Love  hath  wings,  and  will  away." — Waller. 
"Up,  up,  Gleutarkin!  rouse  thee,  hoi"— IF.  Scoti. 

Obs.  6. — Most  conjunctive  adverbs  relate  to  two  verbs  at  the  same  time,  and 
thus  connect  the  two  clauses  ;  as,  "  And  the  rest  will  I  set  in  order  wh4n  I 
come." — 1  Cor.,  xi,  34.  Here  when  is  an  adverb  of  time,  relating  to  the  two 
verbs,  will  set  and  come  ;  the  meaning  being,  "  And  the  rest  wUl  I  set  in  order 
at  the  time  at  which  I  come." 

NOTES    TO    RULE    XV. 

Note  I. — Adverbs  must  be  placed  in  that  position  which 
will  render  the  sentence  the  most  perspicuous  and  agreeable. 

*  Murray  and  his  copyists  strongly  condemn  this  use  of  above,  and  wo  do  not  con- 
tend for  it;  but,  both  hc'and  tliey,  (a's  well  as  others,)  have  repeatedly  employed  tha 
word  in  this  manner:  as,  "The  dbovff  construction."— J/arra;/'*'  Oram.,  Svo,  p.  149. 
"The  above  histances."— p.  202.  "The  above  rule."— p.  2T0.  "la  such  iustaucee  as 
tbe  above,"— ^.  24.    "  The  same  as  the  above."— y.  66. 

17w 


198  INSTITUTES  OF  ENGLISH  GRAMMAE.     [PART  IIL 

Oe9.— For  tlio  placing  of  adverbs,  no  definite  general  rule  can  be  given. 
Those  which  relate  to  adjectives,  immediately  precede  them  •  and  those  which 
belong  to  compound  verbs,  are  commonly  placed  after  the  first  auxiliary. 

Note  II. — Adverbs  should  not  be  used  as  adjectives ;  nor 
should  they  be  employed,  Avhen  quality  is  to  be  expressed,  and 
not  manner :  as,  "  The  soonest  time ;" — "  Thine  often  infirm- 
ities ;" — "  It  seems  strangely.''''     All  these  are  wrong. 

Note  III. — With  a  verb  of  motion,  most  grammarians  pre- 
fer hither,  thither,  and  zchither,  to  here,  there,  and  ivhere,  -which 
are  in  common  use,  and  perhaps  allowable,  though  not  so 
good  ;  as,  "  Come  hither  Charles," — or,  "  Come  Aere." 

Note  IV. — To  the  adverbs  hence,  thence,  and  whence,  the 
preposition /rom  is  frequently  (though  not  with  strict  propriety) 
prefixed.     It  is  well  to  omit  all  needless  words. 

Note  V. — The  adverb  how  should  not  be  used  before  the 
conjunction  that,  nor  in  stead  of  it;  as,  "  lie  said  how  he  would 
go."     Expunge  ]low.     This  is  a  vulgar  error. 

Note  VI. — The  adverb  no  should  not  be  used  with  reference 
to  a  verb  or  a  participle.  Such  expressions  as, "  Tell  me  whether 
you  will  go  or  no^'^  are  therefore  improper  :  no  should  be  not; 
for  "^o"  is  understood  after  it. 

Obs. — Ko  is  sometimes  an  adverb  of  degree  ;  and  as  such  it  has  this  pecu- 
liarity, that  it  can  relate  only  to  comparatives  :  as,  "Ao  more,"- — "iVc>  better," 
• — "i\^6i  greater," — "iVo  sooner."  When  this  word  is  prefixed  to  a  noun,  it  is 
clearly  an  adjective,  corresponding  to  the  Latin  nulliui ;  as,  "Aw  clouds,  no 
vapours  intervene." — Dyer. 

Note  VII. — A  negation,  in  English,  admits  but  one  nega- 
tive word :  as,  "  I  could  not  wait  any  longer," — nut,  "  no 
longer."     Double  negatives  are  vulgar. 

Obs.  1. — The  repetition  of  a  negative  word  or  clause,  strengthens  the  ne- 
gation ;  as,  "  No,  no,  no."  But  two  negatives  in  the  same  clause,  destroy 
the  negation,  and  render  the  meaning  affirmative ;  as,  '■'■Nor  did  they  not 
perceive  their  evil  plight." — Milton.    That  is,  they  did  perceive  it. 

Obs.  t.—Ever  and  n^mr  are  directly  opposite  in  sense,  and  yet  they  are 
frequently  confounded  and  misapplied  even  by  respectable  writers;  as  "Sel- 
dom, or  never,  can  we  expect,"  &c. — Blair'' s  Lectures,  p.  805.  "Seldom,  or 
ever,  did  any  one  rise,"  &c. — Hid.,  p.  272.  Here  never  is  right,  and  ever  is 
wrong.  But  as  the  negative  advei'b  applies  only  to  time,  ever  is  preferable 
to  never,  in  sentences  like  the  following :  "  Now  let  man  refiect  but  never  so 
little  on  hiiaseXV  —  Burlamaqui,  p.  29.  "Which  will  not  hearken  to  the 
voice  of  charmers,  channing  never  so  wisely." — Ps.,  Iviii,  5.  For  the  phrase 
ever  so,  (which  ought  perhaps  to  be  written  as  one  word,)  is  a  very  common 
expression,  denoting  c/tj;^^,  however  great  or  small;  as,  ^^ eve?-so  little" — 
"everso  wisely."  And  it  seems  to  be  this,  and  not  time,  that  is  intended  in 
the  last  two  examples. 

Obs.  3. — By  the  customary  (but  f»ulty)  omission  of  the  negative  before  hd, 
tlmt  conjunction  has  acquired  the  adverbial  sense  of  onli/  ;  and  it  may,  when 
used  with  that  signification,  be  called  an  adverb.  Thus,  the  text,  "He  hath 
not  grieved  me  but  in  part,"  [2  Cor.,  ii,  5,]  might  drop  the  negative,  and 
Btill  convey  the  same  meaning :   "  He  hath  grieved  me  but  in  part." 

"Reason  itself,  but  gives  it  edge  and  power." — Pope, 
"Born  but  to  die,  and  reasoning  but  to  err." — Id. 


CHAP.  II.]  SYNTAX. — RULE   XV. — ADVERBS.  199 

FALSE  SYNTAX   UNDER  RULE  XV. — ADVERBS. 
Examples  under  Note  1. —  The  Placing  of  Adverbs, 
We  were  received  kindly. 

[FoRMTTi.E. — Not.  pvoppv,  becauso  the  adverb  kindli/  is  not  in  the  most  KiiltaWe 
place.  But,  at'cordini;  to  Note  1st  uiulor  Ilule  15th,  "Adverbs  must  be  placed  in  that 
position  which  will  render  the  sentence  the  most  perspicuous  and  agreeable."  Thj 
sentence  will  be  improvud  by  placing  kindly  beloro  received;  thus,  We  wero  kludly 
received.] 

The  work  will  be  never  completed. 

We  always  should  prefer  our  duty  to  our  pleasure. 

It  is  impossible  continually  to  be  at  work. 

He  impertinently  behaved  to  his  master. 

The  heavenly  bodies  are  in  motion  perpetually. 

Not  only  he  found  her  busy,  but  pleased  and  happy  even. 

Under  Note  2. — Adverbs  for  Adjectives, 

Give  him  a  soon  and  decisive  answer. 
When  a  substantive  is  put  absolutely. 
Such  expressions  sound  harshly. 
Such  events  are  of  seldom  occurrence. 
Velvet  feels  very  smoothly. 

Under  Note  3. — Here  for  Hither,  <i;c 

Bring  him  here  to  me. 

I  shall  go  there  again  in  a  few  days. 

Where  are  they  all  riding  in  so  great  haste  1 

Under  Note  4. — From  Hence,  dr. 

From  hence  it  appears  that  the  statement  is  incorrect. 
From  thence  arose  the  misunderstanding. 
Do  you  know  from  whence  it  proceeds  ? 

Under  Note  5. — The  Adverb  How. 

You  see  how  that  not  many  arc  required. 

1  knew  how  that  they  had  heard  of  his  misfortunes. 

Pie  remarked,  how  time  was  valuable. 

Under  Note  6. —  The  Adverb  No. 

Know  now,  whether  this  be  thy  son's  coat  or  no. 
Whether  he  is  in  fault  or  no,  I  cannot  tell. 
I  will  ascertain  whether  it  is  so  or  no. 

Under  Note  7. — Double  Negatives. 

I  will  not  by  no  means  entertain  a  spy. 

Nobody  never  invented  nor  discovered  nothing,  in  no  way  to 
be  compared  with  this. 


200  INSTITUTES  OF   ENGLISH   GRAMMAK.     [PART  IIL 

Be  honest,  nor  take  no  shape  nor  semblance  of  disguise. 
I  did  not  like  neither  his  temper  nor  his  principles. 
Nothing  never  can  justify  ingratitude. 

KULE  XVI.— CONJUNCTIONS. 

Conjunctions  connect  either  words  or  sentences:  as, 
"  Let  there  be  no  strife,  I  pray  thee,  between  me  and 
thee,  and  between  my  herdmen  and  thy  herdmen ;  fur 
we  are  brethren." — Gen.^  xiii,  8. 

EXCEPTION    FIRST. 

The  conjunction  tliat  sometimes  serves  merely  to  introduce  a  sentence 
■which  ia  made  the  subject  of  a  verb ;  as,  '■'•That  mind  is  not  matter,  is  cer- 
ium." 

EXCEPTION    SECOND. 

"When  two  corresponding  conjiinctions  occur,  in  their  usual  order,  the  for- 
mer should  be  parsed  as  referring  to  the  latter,  which  is  more  properly  the 
connecting  word  ;  as,  '■'■Neither  sun  nor  stars  in  mauy  days  appeared." — Acts, 
xxvii,  20. 

EXCEPTION    THIRD.- 

EltJier,  corresponding  to  or,  and  ncitlier,  corresponding  to  nor  or  noU  are 
Bometimes  transposed,  so  as  to  repeat  the  disjunction  or  negation  at  the  end 
of  the  sentence;  as,  "Where  then  was  their  capacity  of  standing,  w  hi^» 
either  T^— Barclay.  "It  is  rutt  d-dngevoaa  Tteiiher.''' — BoUnghroke.  "  llo  is 
very  tall,  but  nat  too  tall  neither.'''' — Spectator. 

OBSERVATIONS    ON    RULE   XVI. 

Oi?s.  1. — Conjunctions  that  Qonneat  particular  words,  generally  join  similar 
parts  of  speech"  in  a  common  dependence  on  some  other  term.  Those  which 
connect  sentences  or  clauses,  commonly  unite  one  to  an  other,  either  as  an  ad- 
ditional affirmation,  or  as  a  condition,  a  cause,  or  an  end.  They  are  placed 
between  the  terms  which  they  connect,  except  there  is  a  transposition,  and 
then  they  stand  before  the  dependent  term. 

Oijs.  2. — Two  or  three  conjunctions  sometimes  come  together;  as, 

"  What  rests,  iut  that  the  mortal  sentence  pass  V— Milton. 

Obs.  3. — Conjunctions  should  not  be  unnecessarily  accumulated;  as,  '■'■Bui 
AND  if  that  evil  servant  say  in  his  heart." — Matthew,  xxiv,  48.  Greek, 
'•  Erti^  it  urrijh  /caxds  S'lvXoi  iKUvng,"  &c.     Here  is  no  and. 

Obs.  4. — Tlie  conjunction  as  often  unites  words  that  are  in  apposition  ;  as, 
"  He  otfered  himselj  as  a  journei/man.''''  [See  Ohs.  5,  Rule  xx.]  So,  likewise, 
when  an  intransitive  verb  takes  the  same  case  after  as  before  it,  by  Rule 
xxi ;  as,  "Johnson  soon  after  engaged  as  -usher  in  a  school." — Murray.  "He 
was  employed  as  usher.''''  This  also  is  a  virtual  apposition.  If  after  the  verb 
'■'engaged''''  we  supply  h'vmself,  usher  becomes  objective,  and  is  in  apposition 
with  ti)e  pronoun. 

Obs.  5. — As  frequently  has  the  force  of  a  relative  pronoun ;  as,  "  Avoid 
6uch  Gs  rtz-e  vicious."  "But  to  as  many  as  received  him,"  &c.  "He  then 
read  the  conditions  asfollmv,''''  Here  as  represents  a  noun,  and  is  the  subject 
of  a  verb.  [See  Tooke^s  Diversions  of  Ptirley.]  But  when  a  clause,  or  sen- 
tence, is  tlie  antecedent,  it  is  better  to  consider  as  a  conjunction,  and  to  sup- 
ply the  pronoun  it ;  as,  "He  is  angry,  as  [it]  appears  by  this  letter," 

Obs.  G. — The  conjunction  that  is  frequently  understood  ;  as, 

"  Thou  warnst  me  [fhafi  I  have  done  amiss." — Scott. 

Obs,  7. — After  than  or  as  expressing  a  comparison,  there  is  usually  an  el- 


CHAP.  II.]  SYNTAX.— RULE  XVI.— CONJUNCTIONS.  20] 

lipsis  of  somo  word  or  words.  The  construction  of  the  words  employed  may 
bo  known  by  Bupplyiug  the  ellipsis;  iis,  "Slie  is  yountrer  than  I"  [(i7n]. — 
"  lie  does  notiiiiitr  who  endciivours  to  do  more  than  [what]  is  allowed  to 
humanity." — Johnson.  "  My  puuislimeut  is  greater  than  [what]  1  cau  bear  " 
— Mlble. 

NOTES    TO    RULE    XVI. 

Note  I. — When  two  terms  connected  refer  jointly  to  a  third, 
they  must  be  Jidapted  to  it  and  to  each  other,  both  in  sense 
and  in  form.  Thus :  in  stead  of,  "  It  always  has,  and  always 
will  be  laudable,"  say,  "  It  always  has  been,  and  it  always  will 
be  laudable." 

Note  II. — The  disjunctive  conjunction  lest  or  but,  should  not 
be  employed  where  the  copulative  that,  would  be  more  proper  : 
as,  "  I  feared  that  I  should  be  deserted ;"  not,  "  lest  I  should 
be  deserted." 

Note  III. — After  else,  other,  rather,  and  all  comparatives,  the 
latter  term  of  comparison  should  be  introduced  by  the  con- 
junction tha)i :  as,  "  Can  there  be  any  other  than  this  ]" — 
Harris.     "  Is  not  the  life  more  than  meat  V — Bible. 

Note  IV. — The  words  in  each  of  the  following  pairs,  are  the 
proper  corresjjondents  to  each  other  ;  and  care  should  be  taken, 
to  give  them  their  right  place  in  the  sentence. 

1.  Tho7igh — tjct ;  as,  '■'■Though  he  were  dead,  yet  shall  ha 
live." — Johii,  xi,  25. 

2.  Whether — or ;  as,  '■'■Whether  there  be  few  or  many." 

3.  Either — or ;  as,  "He  was  either  ashamed  or  afraid." 

4.  Neither — nor  ;  as,  "  John  the  Baptist  came  neither  eating 
bread  nor  drinking  wine." — Luke,  vii,  33. 

5.  Both — and ;  as,  "I  am  debtor  both  to  the  Greeks  and  to 
the  Barbarians." — Rom.,  i,  14. 

6.  Such — as  ;  as,  "An  assembly  such  as  earth  saw  never." 
' —  Cowj:)er. 

7.  Such — that;  with  a  finite  verb  following,  to  express  a 
consequence :  as,  "  My  health  is  such  that  I  cannot  go." 

8.  As — as ;  with  an  adjective  or  an  adverb,  to  express 
equality  :  as,  "The  peasant  is  as  gay  as  he." — Cowper. 

9.  As — so ;  with  two  verbs,  to  express  equality  or  propor- 
tion :  as,  "-4s  two  are  to  four,  so  are  six  to  twelve." 

10.  So — as;  with  an  adjective  or  an  adverb,  to  limit  the 
degree  by  comparison  :  as,  "  How  can  you  descend  to  a  thing 
so  base  as  falsehood  V 

11.  So — as;  with  a  negative  preceding,  to  deny  equality: 
as.  "  No  lamb  was  e'er  so  mild  as  he." — Langhorne. 

12.  So — as ;  with  an  infinitive  following,  to  express  a  eon- 
sequence  :  as, "  These  difficulties  were  so  great  as  to  discourage 
age  him." 

9* 


202  INSTITUTES   OF  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR.     [PART  lU. 

13.  So — that;  with  a  finite  verb  following,  to  express  a 
consequence  :  as,  "  He  was  so  much  injuredj  that  he  could  not 
walk." 

FALSE   SYNTAX  UNDER  RULE   XVI. — CONJUNCTIONS. 

Examples  under  Note  1. — Two  Terras  with  One. 

The  first  proposal  was  essentially  different  and  inferior  to  the 
second. 

[FonMui.T:. — ^Not  proper,  because  the  preposition  io.  is  used  with  joint  reference  to 
the  two  a  Ijeetives  different  arnl  inferior,  which  require  different  prepositions.  But, 
according  to  Koto  1st  under  Jtule  16th,  "  When  two  terms  connected  refer  jointly  to  a 
tliird,  they  must  he  adapted  to  it  and  to  each  otlier,  both  in  sense  anil  in  form."  The 
sentence  may  be  corrected  thus;  The  first  proposal  was  essentially  different/rciyw  the 
second,  and  inferior  to  it] 

He  has  made  alterations  and  additions  to  the  work. 
He  is  more  bold,  but  not  so  wise,  as  his  companion. 
Sincerity  is  as  valuable,  and  even  more  so,  than  knowledge. . 
I  always  have,  and  I  always  shall  be,  of  this  opinion. 
What  is  now  kept   secret,  shall  be  hereafter  displayed  and 

heard  in  the  clearest  light. 
We  pervert  the  noble  faculty  of  speech,  when  we  use  it  to  the 

defaming  or  to  disq-uiet  our  neighbours. 
Be  more  anxious  to  acquire  knowledge  than  of  showing  it. 
The  court  of   chancery  frequently  mitigates  and    breaks  the 

teeth  of  the  common  law. 

Under  Note  2. — Lest  or  But  for  That. 

We  were  apprehensive  lest  some  accident  had  happened. 

I  do  not  deny  but  he  has  merit. 

Are  you  afraid  lest  he  will  forget  you  ? 

These  paths  and  bow'rs,  doubt  not  but  our  joint  hands. 

Will  keep  from  wilderness. — Milton. 

Under  Note  3. — Prefer  Than. 
It  was  no  other  but  his  own  father. 
Have  you  no  other  proof  except  this? 
I  expected  something  more  besides  this. 
He  no  sooner  retires  but  his  heart  burns  with  devotion. 
Sucli  literary  filching  is  nothing  else  but  robbery. 

Under  Note  4  —  Of  Correspondents. 

Neither  despise  or  oppose  what  you  do  not  understand. 

He  would  not  either  do  it  himself  nor  let  me  do  it. 

The  majesty  of  good  things  is  such,  as  the  confines  of  them  are 

reverend. 
Whether  he  intends  to  do  so,  I  cannot  tell. 
Send  me  such  articles  ouly,  that  are  adapted  to  this  market. 


CHAP.  II.]    SYNTAX.— RULE   XYII.— PKEPOSITIONS.  203 

As  far  ns  I  am  able  to  judgo,  the  book  is  -well  written. 

No  errors  arc  so  trivial  but  thoy  deserve  correction. 

It  will  improve  neither  the  mind,  nor  delight  the  fancy. 

Tile  one  is  equally  deserving  as  the  other. 

There  is  no  condition  so  secure  as  cannot  admit  of  change. 

Do  you  think  this  is  so  good  as  that  1 

The  relations  are  so  obscure  as  they  require  much  thought. 

None  is  so  fierce  that  dare  stir  him  up. 

There  was  no  man  so  sangumc  who  did  not  apprehend  some 
ill  consequence. 

I  must  be  so  candid  to  owti  that  I  do  not  understand  it. 

The  book  is  not  as  well  printed  as  it  ought  to  be. 
So  still  he  sat  as  those  who  wait 
Till  judgment  speak  the  doom  of  fate. — Scott. 

RULE  XVII.—PREPOSITIONS. 

Prepositions  show  the  relations  of  things :  as,  "  He 
came /rom  Eome  io  Paris,  m  the  company  of  many  em- 
inent men,  and  passed  -with  them  through  many  cities." 
— Analectic  Magazine. 

EXCEPTION   FIRST. 

The  preposition  to^  before  au  abstract  infinitive,  and  at  tbe  bead  of  a  pbrase 
Tvliich  IS  made  the  subject  of  a  verb,  lias  no  proper  antecedent  term  of  rela- 
tion; as,  "7i  learn  to  die,  is  tbe  great  business  of  life." — Dillioyn.  "  Never- 
theless, to  abide  in  the  flesh,  is  more  needful  for  you." — St.  Faul.  ^'■To  bo 
reduced  to  poverty,  is  a  great  affliction." 

EXCEPTION   SECOND. 

The  preposition __/br,  vrhen  it  introduces  its  object  before  an  infiniiive,  and 
tbe  wbole  phrase  is  made  the  subject  of  a  verb,  has  properly  no  antecedent 
terra  of  relation ;  as,  "i^;*  us  to  learn  to  die,  is  the  great  business  of  life." — 
"  Nevertheless, ybr  me  to  abide  in  the  flesh,  is  more  needful  for  you." — "/or 
an  old  man  to  be  reduced  to  poverty,  is  a  very  great  affliction." 

OBSERVATIONS   ON   RULE    XVII. 

Obs.  1. — In  parsing  any  ordinary  preposition,  the  learner  sboiild  name  the 
two  terms  of  the  remion,  and  apply  the  foregoing  rule.  The  principle  is 
eimple  and  et;yTiiological,  yet  not  the  less  important  as  a  rule  of  syntax. 
Among  tolerable  writers,  the  prepositions  exhibit  more  errors  than  any  other 
equal  number  of  words.  This  is  probably  owing  to  the  careless  manner  ia 
which  they  are  usually  slurred  over  in  panning. 

Obs.  2. — If  the  learner  be  at  any  loss  to  discover  the  two  terms  of  relation, 
let  him  ask  and  answer  two  qvesiions  ;  first,  with  the  interrogative  what  be- 
fore the  preposition,  to  find  the  antecedent ;  and  then,  with  the  same  pro- 
noun "lifter  the  preposition,  to  find  the  subseqiaent  term.  These  questions 
answered  according  to  the  sense,  will  always  give  the  true  terms.  If  ono 
term  is  obNaous,  find  the  other  in  this  way;  as,  "  Day  unto  day  uttereth 
Epeecb,  and  night  unto  night  sboweth  knowledge." — Psal.  JVTiat  unto  day  ? 
Ans.  "■  Uttereth  unto  da}/.'' ^  TFAai  unto  night  ?  Ans.  '■'■Showeth  unto  night.'''' 
To  parse  rightly  is  to  understand  rightly ;  and  what  is  well  expressed,  it  ia 
a  shame  to  misunderstand  or  inisiuterpret. 


204  INSTITUTES   OF   ENGLISH   GRAMMAR.     [PART  III, 

Ob3.  3. — When  a  preposition  begins  or  ends  a  sentence  or  clause,  the  tei  ma 
of  relation  are  transposed;  as,  "To  a  studious  7?jaw,  action  is  a  relief.''''— 
Burgh.  '■'■Science  they  [the  ladies]  do  not,  pretend  to." — Id.  "  Until  1  have 
done  that  which  I  have  spoken  to  thee  of." — Gen.,  xxviii,  15. 

Obs.  4. — The  former  or  antecedent  term  of  relation  may  be  a  noun,  an  ad- 
jective, a  pronoun,  a  verb,  a  participle,  or  an  adverb :  the  latter  or  svhsequent 
term  may  be  a  noun,  a  pronoun,  a  pronominal  atljective,  an  infinitive  verb, 
or  an  imperfect  or  preperfsct  participle.  The  word  governed  by  the  prepo- 
sition, is  always  the  subsequent  term,  however  placed. 

Obs.  5. — Both  the  terms  of  relation  are  usually  expressed  ;  though  either 
of  them  ma// ie  uiulerstood  ;  as,  1.  2  he  former — "  All  shall  know  me,  [reclc- 
orung]  from  tlie  least  to  the  greatest." — Heb.,  viii,  11.  [I  say]  "in  a  word, 
it  would  entirely  defeat  tlie  purpose." — Bkiir.  2.  'I7ie  latter — "  Opinions 
and  ceremonies  [wAw/i]  they  would  die  roE." — Locke.  "  In  [^/^o«e]  who  ob- 
tam  defence,  or  who  defend." — Pope. 

Obs.  6.— The  only  proper  exceptions  to.  the  foregoiufj  rule,  are  those  which 
are  inserted  above,  unless  the  aostract  infinitive  used  iis  a  predicate  is  also 
to  be  excepted  ;  as,  "  To  reason  right,  is  ^o  submit." — Po2^e.  But  here  most 
if  not  all  grammarians  would  say,  the  verb  w,  is  the  antecedent  or  governing 
term.  The  relation,  however,  is  not  such  as  when  we  say,  "  He  is  to  sub- 
mit;'' but,  perhaps,  to  in^st  on  a  ditferent  mode  of  parsing  these  two  infini- 
tives, would  be  a  needless  refinement.  lu  relation  to  tlie  infinitive.  Dr. 
Adam  remarks,  that  the  preposition  to  is  often  taken  alsvhiiely  ;  as,  "  To  con- 
fess the  truth." — "  To  proceed."  But  the  assertion  is  not  entirely  true;  nor 
are  his  examples  appropriate  ;  for  what  he  and  many  other  grammarians  call 
the  infinitive  absolute,  evidently  depends  on  something  vnderstood  ;  and  the 
preposition  is  surely  in  no  instance  indepen  dent  of  what  follows  it,  and  ia 
therefore  never  entirely  absolute.  Prepositions  are  not  to  be  supposed  to 
have  no  antecedent  term,  merely  because  they  stand  at  the  head  of  a  sen- 
tence which  is  made  the  subject  of  a  verb;  for  the  sentence  itself  often  con- 
tains that  term,  as  in  the  following  example  :  "/«  wliat  way  mind  acts  upon 
matter,  is  unknown."  Here  in  shows  the  relation  between  acts  and  way; 
because  it  is  suggested,  that  mind  <ccts  in  some  way.'''' 

Ob9.  7. — The  preposition  (as  its  name  implies)  precedes  the  word  v/hich  it 
governs.  But,  m  poetry,  the  preposition  is  sometimes  placed  after  its  object; 
as, 

"Wild  Carron's  lonely  woods  among.'''' — Langhorne. 

Obs.  8. — In  the  familiar  style,  a  preposition  governing  a  relative  or  an  in- 
terrogative pronoun,  is  often  separated  from  its  object,  and  connected  with 
the  other  term  of  relation ;  as,  ^'■Whom  did  he  speak  i!o.^"  But  it  is  more 
dignified,  and  in  general  more  graceful,  to  place  the  preposition  before  the 
pronoun  ;  as,  '■'•To  uhom  did  he  speak  J", 

Obs.  9. — Two  prepositiims  sometimes  come  together;  as,  "  Lambeth  L» 
over  against  Westminster-abbey." — Murray. 

"  AwA  from  before  the  lustre  of  her  face." — Tftomsnn. 
"Blows  mildew y>o»i  hetioeen  his  shrivel'd  lips. — Cowp&r, 

These  should  be  written  as  compounds,  and  taken  together  in  parsing ;  for 
if  we  parse  them  separately,  we  must  either  call  the  first  an  adverb,  or  sup- 
pose some  very  awkward  ellipsis. 

Of.s.  10. — Two  separate  prepositions  have  sometimes  a  joint  reference  to 
the  same  noun :  as,  "  He  boasted  of,  and  contended/o/-,  the  privilege."  Thia 
construction  is  formal,  and  scarcely  allowable,  except  in  the  law  style.  It  is 
better  to  say,  "  He  boasted  of  the  privilege,  and  contended  for  it." 

Oes.  11.— The  preposition  int^o.,  expresses  a  relation  produced  by  motion  or 
change  ;  and  in,  the  same  relation,  without  reference  to  motion  :  hence,  "to 
walk  info  the  carden,"  and,  "to  walk  in  the  garden,"  are  very  diiferent. 

Obs.  12. — Between  or  letwixt  is  used  in  reference  to  two  things  or  parties: 
among  or  amidst,  in  reference  to  a  greater  number,  or  to  something  by  which 
an  other'may  be  surrounded;  as, 

"  Thou  pendulum  betwixt  a  smile  and  tear." — Byron. 
"  The  host  between  the  mountain  and  the  shore."— '/</. 


CHAP.  II.]   SYNTAX.— RULE   XVII.— PREPOSITIONS.  205 

*'  To  meditote  amongst  decay,  and  stand 
A  ruin  amidst  ruins." — Id, 

NOTES    TO    RULE    XVII 

Note  I. — Prepositions  must  be  chosen  and  employed  ngree- 
ably  to  the  usage  and  idiom  of  the  language,  so  as  rightly  to 
express  the  relations  intended. 

Note  II. — An  ellipsis  or  omission  of  prepositions  is  inele- 
gant, except  in  those  phrases  in  which  long  and  general  use 
has  sanctioned  it.     In  the  following  sentence,  of'is  needed. 

" I  will  not  flatter  you, 

That  all  I  see  in  you  is  worthy  love.''''—  ShaJc. 

FALSE    SYNTAX    UNDER    RULE   XVII.— PREPOSITIONS. 
Examples  under  Note  1. —  Choice  of  Prepositions, 
Her  sobriety  is  no  derogation  to  her  understanding. 

[FoRMULE. — Not  proper,  because  the  relation  between  derogation  and  understand-< 
ing  is  nut  correctly  expressed  by  the  preposition  to.  But,  according  to  Nots  1st  un. 
der  Rule  ITtli.  "  Prepositious  must  be  chosen  and  employed  agreeably  to  the  usage 
and  idiom  of  the  language,  so  a^  lightly  to  express  the  relation"  ^'''■f^nded."  This  rela- 
tion would  be  better  expressed  hy  from;  thus,  Ilersobiicty  U  utf  di,/'ogati(>a//'om  het 
understanding.] 

She  finds  a  difficulty  of  fixing  her  mind. 

This  affair  did  not  fall  into  his  cognizance. 

He  was  accused  for  betraying  his  trust. 

There  was- no  water,  and  he  died  for  thirst. 

I  have  no  occasion  of  hi.:i  services. 

You  may  safely  confide  on  hiin. 

I  entertain  no  prejudice  to  him. 

You  may  rely  in  what  I  tell  you. 

Virtue  and  vice  differ  widely  with  each  other. 

This  remark  is  founded  in  truth. 

After  many  toils,  we  arrived  to  our  journey's  end.. 

I  will  tell  you  a  story  very  difterent  to  that. 

Their  conduct  is  agreeable  with  their  profession. 

Exoes'sive  pleasures  pass  from  satiety  in  disgust. 

I  turned  into  disgust  from  the  spectacle. 

They  are  gone  in  the  meadow. 

Let  this  be  divided  between  the  three. 

The  shells  were  broken  in  pieces. 

The  deception  has  passed  among  every  one. 

They  never  quarrel  among  each  other. 

Amidst  every  diflficulty,  he  persevered. 

Let  us  go  above  stairs, 

1  was  at  London,  when  this  happened. 

We  were  detained  to  home,  and  disappointed  in  our  walk. 

This  originated  from  mistake. 

IS 


203  INSTITUTES   OF   ENGLISH   GRAMMAR.     [PART  JII. 

The  Bridewell  is  situated  to  the  west  of  the  City-Hall,  and  it 
has  no  communication  to  the  other  buildings, 

I  am  disappointed  of  the  work ;  it  is  very  inferior  from  what 
I  expected. 

Under  Note  2. —  Omission  of  Prepositions. 

Be  worthy  mc,  as  I  am  worthy  you. — Dry  den. 
They  cannot  but  he  unworthy  the  care  of  others. 
Thou  shalt  have  no  portion  on  this  side  the  river. 
Sestos  and  Abydos  were  exactly  opposite  each  other. 
Ovid  was  banished  Rome  by  his  patron  Augustus. 

RULE  XVIIL— INTERJECTIONS. 

Interjections  have  no  dependent  construction:  as,  "  01 
let  not  thy  heart  despise  me."' — Johnson. 

OBSERVATIONS    ON    RULE    XVIII, 

Obs.  l.^Tothis  rule  there  are  properly  ?m>  exceptions.  Though  interjeo- 
tioBS  are  sometimes  uttered  in  close  connexion  with  other  words,  yet,  being 
mere  signs  of  passion  and  feeling,  they  cannot  have  any  strict  grammatical 
relation,  or  dependence  according'  to  the  sense.  Being  destitute  alilce  of  re- 
lation, agreement,  and  government,  they  must  bo  used  indepeudeutly,  if 
used  at  all. 

Obs.  2. — The  interjection  0  is  common  to  many  languages,  and  is  fre- 
quently prefixed  to  nouns  or  pronoHHS  put  absolute  by  direct  address ;  as, 
"Arise.  O  Lord;  0  God,  lift  up  thine  hand."— P«ato.?,  x,  12.  "C>  ye  of 
little  faith !" — Mat.,  vi,  80.  The  Lat'm  and  Crreek  grammarians,  therefore, 
made  this  interjection  the  sign  of  the  vocative  case  ;  which  is  the  same  as  tho 
nominative  put  absolute  by  address  in  English. 

Obs.  S. — "  Interjections  in  Euglisli  have  no  government." — LowtTi.  When 
a  word  not  in  the  nominative  absolute,  follows  an  interjection,  as  part  of  an 
imperfect  exclamation,  its  construction  depends  on  '&o\a&X\i\\\%  understood ; 
as,  "  Ahwe/"— thatis,  "Ah!  ^%me."—"  Alas/or  them  !"— that  is,  "Alas! 
I  sigh  for  them." — "  O  for  that  warning  voice  !" — that  is,  "  O  !  hoiv  I  long  for 
that  warning  voice  !" — "O  !  that  tliey  were  wise  I" — that  is,  "  0  !  how  I  wish 
that  they  wore  wise !"  Such  expressions,  however,  lose  much  of  their  viva- 
city, when  the  ellipsis  is  supplied. 

Obs.  4. — Interjections  may  be  placed  before  or  after  a  simple  sentence,  and 
Bometimes  hetiveen  its  parts ;  but  tliey  are  seldom  allowed  to  interrupt  tho 
connexion  of  words  closely  united  in  sense.  Murray's  definition  of  an  inter- 
jection is  faulty,  and  directly  contradicted  by  his  example :  "  O  virtue  1  how 
amiable  thou  ait !" 


CHAPTER  III.— GOYERNMENT. 

Government  has  respect  only  to  nouns,  pronouns,  verbs, 
participles,  and  prepositions ;  the  other  five  parts  of 
speech  neither  govern  nor  are  governed.  The  governing 
words,  may  be  cither  nouns,  pronouns,  verbs,  participles^ 


CHAP.  III.]    SYNTAX.— RULE   XIX.— rOSSESSIVES.  207 

or  prepositions;  the  words  governed  arc  cither  Jiouns, 
pronouns,  verbs,  or  participles.  In  parsing,  the  learner 
must  remember  tliat  the  rules  of  government  are  not  to 
be  applied  to  the  governing  words,  but  to  those  whicii 
are  governed;  and  which,  for  the  sake  of  brevity,  are 
often  technically  named  after  the  particular  form  or  mod- 
ification assumed ;  as,  possessives,  objeciives,  same  cases,  in- 
Jiniiives,  gerundives.  Taken  in  this  way,  none  of  tho 
Ibllowing  rules  can  have  any  exceptions. 

Obs. — The  Arravgetnent  of  words,  (which  is  treated  of  in  tnc  obpcrvations 
on  tlie  rules  of  construction,)  is  an  iniportant  part  of  syntax,  in  wliich  }iot 
only  the  beauty  but  the  jiroiiricty  of  language  is  intimately  concerned,  and 
to  which  particular  attention  should  therefore  be  paid  in  composition.  Tut 
it  is  to  be  remembei'cd,  liiat  the  mere  collocation  of  words  in  a  sentence 
never  affeots  the  method  of  parsing  them  ;  on  the  contrary,  the  same  words, 
however  placed,  are  always  to  be  parsed  in  precisely  the  same  way,  so  long 
as  they  express  precisely  the  same  meaning.  In  order  to  show  that  we  have 
parsed  any  part  of  an  inverted  or  dill'icult  sentence  rightly,  we  ai'e  at  liberty 
to  declare  the  meaning  by  any  arrangement  which  will  make  the  construc- 
tion more  obvious,  provided  Ave  retain  both  the  sense  and  all  the  woi'ds  un- 
altered ;  but  to  drop  or  alter  any  word,  is  to  pervert  the  text  and  to  make  a 
jnoekery  of  jiarsing.  Granmiar  rightly  learned,  enables  one  to  understand 
both  tho  sense  and  the  construction  of  whatsoever  is  rightly  written  ;  and  he 
who  reads  what  he  does  not  understand,  reads  to  little  purpose.  Witli  great 
indignity  to  the  muses,  several  pretenders  to  grammar  have  foolishly  tauglit, 
that,  "in  parsing  poetry,  in  order  to  come  at  the  me/niing  of  tho  autiior,  the 


learner  will  find  it  necessary  to  transpose  his  laniruage." — Kirl-Jiam^s  Gr.,  p. 
166.  See  also  Merchant,  Wilcox,  Hull,  and  others,  to  the  same  clfect.  To 
what  purpose  can  he  transpose  a  sentence,  who  does  not  first  see  what  it 
means,  and  how  to  explain  or  parse  it  as  it  stands  'i 

RULE  XIX.— POSSESSIVES. 

A  noun  or  a  pronoun  in  the  Possessive  case,  is  gov- 
erned by  the  name  of  the  thing  possessed ;  as, 

"  Theirs  is  the  vanity,  the  learning  thine  ; 

*'  Touch'd  by  thy  hand,  again  Rome's  glories  shine." 

OBSERVATIONS    ON    RULE    XIX. 

Oes.  1.— Every  possessive  is  governed  by  some  noun  expressed  or  nndcr- 
Btood,  except  such  as  (without  the  possessive  sign)  are  put  in  apposition 
with  others  90  governed;  and  for  every  po°«essive  termination  there  must; 
be  a  separate  governing  word.  The  possessive  sign  may  and  must  be  omit- 
ted in  certain  cases ;  but  it  is  never  omitted  by  ellipsis,  as  Murray  errone- 
ously teaches.  The  four  lines  of  Note  2d  below,  are  sufficient  to  shov/,  iu 
every  instance,  wlien  it  must  be  used,  and  when  omitted. ;  but  Murray,  after 
as  many  octavo  pages  on  the  point,  still  leaves  it  undetermined.  If  a  "person 
knows  what  he  means  to  say,  let  him  express  it  according  to  the  note,  and 
he  shall  not  err. 

Obs.  2. — The  possessive  case  generally  comes  immediately  before  the  ^ov' 
erningnoun;  as,  "All  nature\s  difference  keeps  all  nature^ s  peace." — F(me. 
"Lady!  be  thine  [i.  e.  thy  walk]  the  6'A/-i.s^/««'A- walk." — Ch,  Ubucrmr,  But 
to  this  geueral  principle  there  arc  some  cxccptiou;^ :  as, 


208  INSTITUTES   OF   ENGLISH    GRAMMAR.      [PART  III. 

1.  When  an  adjective  intervenes;  as,  ^'■Flora's  earliest  s»i«Z^." — Millon. 
"  or  wars  last  uiglit's  lecUn-e:' — Spectator. 

l.  Wiieu  tlie  possession  is  afBrmed  or  denied ;  as,  "  The  iDOok  is  mine^ 
and  not  John's.''''  But  here  the  governing  noun  may  he  swppl'ied  in  its  proper 
place ;  and,  in  some  such  sentences,  it  must  be,  else  a  pronoun  will  be  tho 
only  governing  word:  as,  "Ye  are  Christ's  [disciples],  and  Christ  is  God's" 
[son]. — St.  Paul. 

3.  Wlion  the  case  occurs  without  the  sign  ;  as,  "In  her  "brother  Absalom's 
liousc." — Bible.  '■'•David  and  Jonathan's  iVicndship." — ^^Adam  and  Eve's 
morning  hymn." — Dr.  Ash.  "  Behold,  the  heaven,  and  the  heaven  of  heav- 
ens, is  the  Lord's  tl'.y  God.''^ — Dtut.,  x,  14. 

0ns.  3. — Wliere  the  governing  noun  cannot  be  easily  mistaken,  it  is  often 
omitted  by  ellipsis  ;  as,  "  At  the  alderman's"  [house] — "A  book  of  my  bro- 
ther's" [ioofo]^"  A  subject  of  the  emperor's'^  [subjects].  Tliis  is  the  true 
explanation  of  all  Murray'' s  "double  genitives,  for  tho  first  noun,  being 
partitive,  naturally  suggests  a  plurality  of  the  same  kind. 

Ous.  4.— When  two  or  more  nouns  of  the  possessive  form  arc  in  any  way 
connected,  they  usually  refer  to  things  individually  different,  but  of  the  same 
name ;  and,  when  such  is  the  meaning,  the  governing  noun  is  understood 
wherever  the  sign  is  added  without  it :  as, 

"  From  Stiles's  pocket  into  iiofc-s's"  [pochef]. — S.  Butler. 
"  Add  Nature's,  C'ustofji's,  Eeason's,  Passiou^'s  strife." — Pope. 

Obs.  5. — The  possessive  sign  is  sometimes  annexed  to  that  part  of  a  com- 
pound name,  which  is,  of  itself,  in  the  objective  case;  as,  "The  captain-qf- 
the-ffuard'' s  honae." — Dible.  '■'■The  Bard-of-Lmnond''s  lay  is  done." — Hogg. 
"Of  the  (Jhildren-of-IsraeVs  half  thou  shalt  take  one  portion." — Num.,  xxxi, 
80.  Such  compounds  ought  always  to  bo  written  with  hyphens,  and  parsed 
together  a^  possessives  governed  in  the  usual  way.  The  words  cannot  be  ex- 
plained separately. 

Obs.  6. — In  the  following  phrase,  the  possessive  sign  is  awkwardly  added 
to  a  distinct  adjective:  "In  Henry  the  EightWs  time." — Walker^s  Key,  In- 
trod.  p.  11.  Belter,  "In  the  time  of  Henry  the  Eighth."  But,  in  the  fol- 
lowing line,  the  adjective  elegantly  takes  the  sign;  because  there  is  an  ellip- 
eis  of  both  nouns : 

"  The  rich  marl's  joys  increase,  the  poor''s  decay." — Goldsmith. 

Obs.  7. — To  avoid  a  'concurrence  of  hissing  sounds,  the  s  is  sometimes 
omitted,  and  the  apostrophe  alone  retained  to  mark  the  possessive  singular; 
as,  '■'■Yov  conscience''  sake." — Bible.  '■'■Moses''  minister.'''' — PAd.  "Felix''  Toom.^'' 
■ — Ibid.  "Achilles''  wrath." — Pope.  But  the  elision  should  be  sparingly  in- 
dulged. It  is  in  general  less  agreeable  than  the  regular  form ;  as.  Hick's^  for 
Hicks'' s, — Barnes''  ibr  Barnes's. 

Obs.  8. — Whatever  word  or  term  gives  rise  to  the  direct  relation  of  prop- 
erty, and  is  rightly  made  to  govern  the  possessive  case,  must  be  a  iwun — 
must  be  the  name  of  some  substance,  quality,  state,  or  action.  When  there- 
fore other  parts  of  speech  assume  this  relation,  they  become  nouns;  as, 
"Against  the  day  of  my  burying.'''' — John,  xii,  7.  "Oi  my  whereabout.'''' — 
Sliak.     "  The  very  head  and  front  oimy  offending.''' — Id. 

Obs  9. — Some  grammarians  say,  that  a  participle  may  govern  the  possess- 
ive oase  before  it,  and  yet  retain  the  government  and  adjuncts  of  a  part'ici- 
ple;  as,  "  We  aX^^o  properly  say,  '  This  will  be  the  effect  of  the  pupu's  com- 
posing frequently.'" — Murray's  Gram.  "What  can  be  the  reason  of  tho 
committee''s  having  delayed  this  business  ?" — Murray's  Key.  This  construc- 
tion 'i9  faulty,  because  it  confounds  the  properties  of  ditferent  parts  of  speech, 
and  produces  a  hybridous  class  between  tne  participle  and  the  noun;  "but 
this,"  says  Lowth,  "is  inconsistent;  let  it  be  either  the  one  or  the  other,  and 
abide  by  its  proper  construction."  It  is  also  unnecessary,  because  the  s.ama 
idea  may  be  otherwise  expressed  more  elegantly ;  as,  "  This  will  be  the  effect, 
if  the  pupil  compose  frequently." — "  Why  have  the  comm'Mee  delayed  this  busi- 
ness ?" 

NOTES    TO    RULE    XIX. 

Note  I. — lu  the  use  of  the  possessive  case,  its  appropriate 


CHAP.  III.]      SYNTAX.— RULE   XIX.— POSSESSIVES.  209 

form  should  bo  observed :  thus,  write  mot's,  hers,  its,  ours, 
yours,  (heirs  ;  and  not,  mens'',  hcr's,  Ws,  our's,  your^s,  their'' s. 

Note  II. — When  nouns  of  the  possessive  case,  are  connected 
"by  conjunctions,  or  put  in  apposition,  the  sign  of  possession 
must  always  be  annexed  to  such,  and  such  only,  as  immedi- 
ately precede  the  governing  noun,  expressed  or  understood  ; 
as,  "  John  and  Eliza's  teacher  is  a  man  of  more  learning  than 
James'' s  or  Andrew's.'''' — "For  David  my  servant's  sake." — 
Jj'ible.     "Lost  in  love''s  andi friendship' s  smile." — Scott. 

Note  III. — The  relation  of  property  may  also  be  expressed 
by  the  preposition  o/and  the  objective  :  as,  "  The  will  of  man  ;''^ 
for,  "  man's  will."  Of  these  forms,  we  should  adopt  that  which 
will  render  the  sentence  the  most  perspicuous  and  agreeable ; 
and,  by  the  use  of  both,  avoid  an  unpleasant  repetition  of 
either. 

Note  IV. — A  noun  governing  the  possessive  plural,  should 

not  be  made  plural,  unless  the  sense  requires  it.     Thus :  say, 

"  We  have  changed  our  mind,'''  if  only  one  purpose  or  opinion 

is  meant. 

Obs. — A  noun  t;iken  fj^ruratively  may  bo  singular,  -when  tlio  literal  mean- 
in!?  would  require  the  plural:  such  expressions  as,  "  tlieir /ace," — "their 
,jgc/fc,"—"  their  A(//Mi,"—"  their  Aeat/,"—"  their  heart,'" —'' onr  mouth,''''— 
*'our  ^yV," — are  frequeut  iu  the  Scriptures,  and  are  not  improper. 

Note  V. — The  possessive  case  should  not  be  prefixed  to  a 
participle  that  is  not  taken  in  all  respects  as  a  noun.  The 
following  phrase  is  therefore  wrong  :  '•  Adopted  by  the  Goths 
in  their  pronouncing  the  Greek." — Walker's  Key,  p.  17.  Ex- 
punge the'ir, 

FALSE   SYNTAX   UNDER      RULE   XIX. — POSSESSIVES. 
Examples  under  Note  1.  —  The  Possessive  Form.      ^ 
Thy  ancestors  virtue  is  not  thine. 

[FoRMTTLE. — Not  proper,  because  the  noun  cmceHors,  which  is  intended  for  the  po«. 
sessive  plural,  has  not  tlie  appropriate  form  of  tliat  ca>e.  But,  according  to  Note  1st 
under  llule  19tli,  '"In  tuo  use  of  tlio  possessive  ease,  its  appropriate  form  slioulcl  bo 
observed."  An  apostrophe  is  required  after  ancestom;  thus,  Thy  owceA'tors'  virtue 
is  not  thine."] 

Mans  chief  good  is  an  upright  mind. 

I  will  not  destroy  the  city  for  ten  sake. 

Moses  rod  was  turned  into  a  serpent. 

They  are  wolves  in  sheeps  clothing. 

The  tree  is  known  by  it's  fruit. 

The  privilege  is  not  their's,  any  more  than  it  is  your's. 

Yet  he  was  gentle  as  soft  summer  airs, 
Had  grace  for  others  sins,  but  none  for  theirs', 

IR« 


210  INSTITUTES  OF  ENGLISH  GKAMMAR.    [PART  IIL 

Under  Note  2. — Fossessives  Connected. 

There  is  but  little  difference  between  the  Earth  and  Venus's 

diameter. 
This  hat  is  John,  or  James's. 
The  store  is  opposite  to  Morris's  and  Company's. 
This  palace  had  been  the  grand  Sultan's  Mahomet's. 
This  was  the  Apostle's  Paul's  advice. 
Were  Cain's  occu [nation  and  Abel  the  same  ? 
Were  Cain  and  Abel's  occupation  the  same  ? 
Were  Cain's  and  Abel's  occupations  the  same  ? 
Were  Cain  and  Abel's  parents  the  same? 
Were  Cain's  parents  and  Abel  the  same? 
Was  Cain's  and  Abel's  fother  there  1 
Were  Cain's  and  Abel's  parents  there  ? 

Thy  Maker's  will  has  placed  thee  here, 
A  Maker's  wise  and  good. 

Under  Note  3. —  Choice  of  Forms. 

The  world's  government  is  not  left  to  chance. 
He  was  Louis  the  Sixteenth's  son's  heir. 
The  throne  we  honour  is  the  choice  of  the  people. 
We  met  at  my  brother's  partner's  house. 
An  account  of  the  proceedings  of  the  court  of  Alexander. 
Here  is  a  copy  of  the  Constitution  of  the  Society  of  Teachers 
of  the  city  of  New  York. 

Under  Note  4. — Nouns  with  Fossessives  Flnral. 

Their  healths  perhaps  may  be  pretty  well  secured. — Locke. 

We  all  have  talents  committed  to  our  charges. 

For  your  sakes  forgave  I  it,  in  the  sight  of  Christ. 

^^^l  are,  for  our  parts,  well  satisfied.  ' 

The  pious  cheerfully  submit  to  their  lots. 

Fools  think  it  not  worth  their  whiles  to  be  wise. 

Under  Note  5. — Fossessives  with  Farticiples. 

I  rewarded  the  boy  for  his  studying  so  diligently. 
Have  you  a  rule  for  your  thus  parsing  the  participle  ? 
He  errs  in  his  giving  the  word  a  doable  construction. 
By  our  offending  others,  we  expose  ourselves. 
They  deserve  our  thanks,  for  their  quickly  relieving  usu 

RULE  XX.— OBJECTIVES. 

Active -transitive  verbs,  and  their  imperfect  and  pre- 
perfect  participles,   govern   the    objective   case;  as  "I 


CHAP.  III.]     SYNTAX.— RULE   XX.— OBJECTIVES.  211 

found  her  assisting  Mmr — "  Ilaving  finished  the  worlc^  I 
submit  tV." 

OBSERVATIONS    ON    RULE    XX. 

Obs.  1. — Every  olijective  is  governed  by  some  verh  or  participle,  nccording 
to  this  l-iule,  or  by  aouw  preposition,  according  to  Kule  ii^d ;  except  sucli  ns 
are  put  in  apposition  with  others  according  to  Rule  3d,  or  a/ter  an  infinitive 
or  jparticipte  according  to  Rule  21st;  as,  "Like  him  of  (iaih,  Goliath.'''-^ 
"  They  took  him  to  be  m<?." 

Obs.  2. — The  objective  ease  generally  follows  the  governing  word :  but 
when  it  is  emphatic,  it  often  precedes  the  nominative ;  as,  '■'■Me  he  restored 
to  mine  oflice,  and  him  he  hanged." — Gen.,  xli,  13.  '■'■Home  he  had  not." — 
Thomson.  "  This  point  they  have  gained."  In  poetry  it  is  sometimes  placed 
between  the  nominutive  and  the  verb;  as,  "  His  daring  foe  securely  hmi  de- 
fied."— Milton.  "The  broom  its  yellow  leaf  \vM\  shed." — Langhorne.  A 
relative  or  an  interrogative  pronoun  is  commonly  placed  at  the  head  of  its 
clause,  and  of  course  it  precedes  the  verb  which  governs  it ;  as,  "  I  am  Jesus, 
whom  thou  perseeutest." — Acts.     "  Whom  will  the  meeting  appoint  ?" 

Obs.  8. — All  active-transitive  verbs  have  some  noun  or  pronoun  for  tlieir 
object.  Though  verbs  are  often  followed  by  the  infinitive  mood,  or  a  de- 
pendent clause,  forming  a  part  of  the  logical  predicate ;  yet  these  terms,  being 
commonly  introduced  by  a  connecting  particle,  do  not  constitute  such  an  ob- 
ject as  is  contemplated  in  our  definition  of  a  transitive  verb.  U,  in  the  sen- 
tence, "Boys  love  to  play,"  the  verb  is  transitive,  as  several  grammarians 
affirm ;  why  not  also  in  "  Boys  like  to  play,"  "  Boys  delight  to  play,"  "  Boys 
Beem  to  play,"  "  Boys  cease  to  play,"  and  the  like  s  The  construction  is  pre- 
cisely the  same.  It  must,  however,  be  confessed,  that  some  verbs  which 
thus  take  the  infinitive  after  them,  cannot  otherwise  be  intransitive. 

Obs.  4. — The  word  that,  which  is  often  employed  to  introdi;ee  a  clause,  is, 
by  some  grammarians,  considered  as  a  pronoun,  representing  the  clause 
■which  follows  it.  And  their  opinion  seems  to  be  v^^arranted  brch  by  the 
origin  and  the  general  imjiort  of  the  particle.  But  in  conformity  to  general 
custom,  and  to  his  own  views  of  the  practical  purposes  of  gramaiatical  anal- 
ysis, the  author  has  ranked  it  with  the  conjunctions.  Aud  he  thinks  it 
better,  to  call  those  verbs  intransitive,  which  are  followed  by  that  and  a  de- 
pendent clause,  than  to  supply  the  very  frequent  ellipses  which  the  other 
explanation  supposes.  To  explain  it  as  a  conjunction,  ccnnecling  an  active- 
tra7isitive  vei'h  and  its  object,  (as  several  respectable  grari:xiariaus  do,)  appears 
tc  involve  some  inconsistency. 

Obs.  5. — Active-transitive  verbs  are  often  followed  by  two  objectives  in 
apposition:  as,  "Thy  saints  proclaim  thee  king.'''' — Ooivper.  "The  Author 
of  my  being  formed  me  nian.^'' — Murray.  "AudGfd  called  %\\e.  firmament 
Heaven.'''' — Bible.  And,  in  such  a  construction,  tho  direct  object  is  some- 
times placed  before  the  verb ;  as,  "  And  Simon  he  Burnamed  Peter." — Mark, 
iii,  15. 

Obs.  6. — When  a  verb  is  followed  by  two  woyds  in  the  objective  case, 
which  are  neither  in  apposition  nor  connected  bj  a  conjunction,  one  of  thera 
is  governed  by  a  preposition  understood ;  as,  "  I  paid  [to]  hint,  the  money." 
— "They  oft'ered  [to]  me  a  «ea<." — "  He  asked  [of]  them  the  question.''^ — "  1 
yielded,  and  uidock'd  [to]  her  all  my  heart.'''' — M'dton. 

Obs.  7. — In  expressing  such  sentences  passively,  the  object  of  the  preposi- 
tion is  sometimes  erroneously  assumed  for  the  nominative;  as,  ^^Me  was 
paid  the  money,^''  in  stead  of,  "2%e  money  was  ptiid  [to]  Ziim." 

NOTES    TO    RULE    kX. 

Note  I. — Those  verbs  and  participles  which  require  an  ob- 
ject, should  not  be  used  intransitively  ;  as,  "  She  affects  [kind' 
wess,]  in  order  to  ingratiate  [herself^  with  you." — "  I  will  not 


212  INSTITUTES  OF  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.     [PART  IIL 

allow  o/it."     Expunge  of,  that  allow  may  govern  the  pronoun 

it. 

Note  II. — Those  verbs  and  participles  which  do  not  admit 

an  object,  should  not  be  used  transitively;  as,  "The  planters 

grow  cotton."     Say  raise,  or  cultivate. 

Obs. — Some  verbs  will  govern  a  kindred  noun,  or  its  pronoun,  tut  no 
other;  as,  "  He  lived  a  virtuous  life.'''' — "  Hear,  I  pray  you,  this  dream  which 
I.  have  dreamed.'''' — Gen.,  xxxvii,  6. 

Note  III. — The  passive  verb  should  always  take  for  its  sub- 
ject the  direct  object  of  the  active-transitive  verb  from  which 
it  is  derived  ;  as,  [Active)  "  They  denied  mo  this  privilege." — ■ 
(Passive,)  "  This  privilege  was  denied  me," — not,  "/was  denied 
this  privilege." 

FALSE    SYNTAX   UNDER   RULE   XX. — OBJECTIVES. 
She  I  shall  more  readily  forgive. 

[FouMt'T-E. — Not  proper,  because  the  pronoun  f:he  is  in  the  nominative  case,  and  is 
used  as  the  object  of  the  active-transitive  verb  shall  forgive.  But  according  to  liula 
20th,  "  Aclive-transitive  verbs,  and  their  imperfect  and  preperfect  participles,  govern 
the  objective  case." — Therefore,  she  should  be  her ;  thus.  Her  I  shall  more  readily 
forgive.] 

Thou  only  have  I  chosen. 

Who  shall  we  send  on  this  errand  ? 

My  father  allowed  my  brother  and  I  to  accompany  him. 

He  that  is  idle  and  mischievous,  reprove  sharply. 

Who  should  I  meet  but  my  old  friend ! 

He  accosts  whoever  he  meets. 

Whosoever  the  court  fivours,  is  safe. 

They  that  honour  me  I  will  honour. 

Who  do  you  think  I  saw  the  other  day  ? 

Under  Note  1. — An  Object  Required. 

The  ambitious  are  always  seeking  to  aggrandize. 
1  must  premise  with  three  circumstances. 
This  society  does  not  allow  of  personal  reflections. 
False  accusation  cannot  diminish  from  real  merit. 
His  servants  ye  are  to  whom  ye  obey. 

Under  Note  2. — False  Transitive^, 

Good  keeping  thrives  the  herd. 
We  endeavoured  to  agree  the  parties. 
Being  weary,  he  sat  him  down. 
Go,  flee  thee  away  into  the  land  of  Judah. 
The  popular  lords  did  not  fail  to  enlarge  themselves  on  tba 
subject. 


CHAP.  III.]      SYNTAX.— RULE   XXI.— SAME   CASES.  213 

Under  Note  3. — Passive  Verbs. 

They  were  refused  the  benefit  of  their  recantation. 
Believers  are  not  promised  temporal  riches. 
We  were  shown  several  beautiful  pictures. 
But,  unfortunately,  I  was  denied  the  favour. 
You  were  paid  a  high  compliment. 
I  have  never  been  asked  the  question. 

RULE  XXI.— SAME  CASES. 

Active-intransitivo,  passive,  and  neuter  verb?,  and 
their  participles,  take  the  same  case  after  as  he/ore  tliem, 
when  both  words  refer  to  the  same  thing:  as,  "iSTe  re- 
turned a  friend,  ivho  came  afoe.^^ — Pope.  "  The  child  was 
named  JohnJ^ — "/^  could  not  be  Ae." 

OBSERVATIONS    ON    RULK    XXI. 

Obs.  1. — The  verbs  described  in  this  rule  do  not,  like  aetive-tranpitiva 
verbs,  require  a  regimen,  or  ease  after  them  ;  but  their  finite  tenses  may.  bo 
followed  by  a  nominative,  and  their  infinitives  and  participles  by  a  nomina- 
tive or  an  objective,  explanatory  of  a  noun  or  pronoun  which  precedes  them. 
And  as  these  cases  belong  after  the  verb  or  participle,  they  may  in  a  certain 
sense  be  said  to  be  (/overned  by  it.  But  the  mle  is  perhaps  more  properly  a 
rule  of  agreement;  tlie  word  which  follows  the  verb  or  participle,  maybe 
said  to  form  a  simple  concord  with  that  which  precedes  it,  as  if  tlie  two  were 
in  appositian.     [See  Kule  3d.] 

Obs.  2. — In  this  rule  the  terms  after  and  before  refer  rath.er  to  the  order  of 
the  sense  and  construction,  than  to  the  placing  of  tlie  words.  The  proper 
subject  of  the  verb  is  the  nominative  to  it,  or  before  it,  by  Kule  2d ;  and  the 
other  nominative,  however  placed,  belongs  after  it,  hj  Kule  21st.  In  gen- 
eral, howeve»,  the  proper  subject  precedes  the  verb,  "and  the  other  word/b^- 
loivs  it,  agreeably  to  the  literal  sense  of  the  rule.  But  when  the  jiroper  sub- 
ject is  placed  after  the  verb,  as  in  the  nine  instances  sp  cified  under  Kule 
2d,  the  explanatory  ?ionnnative,  is  commonly  introduced  still  later;  as,  "But 
be  <^ow  aae;ra?wjt;fe  of  the  believers."- — 1  Tim.,  iv,  12. 

Obs.  8. — In  iuterrogative  sentences,  the  terms  are  usually  transposed,  or 
both  are  placed  after  tlie  verb ;  as, 

"  Whence,  and  what  art  tJimi,  execrable  shape?" — Milton. 
"  Art  t/wu  that  traitor  angel  ?  art  thou  7u  ?" — Idem. 

Obs.  4. — In  a  declarative  sentence,  there  may  be  a  rhetorical  or  poetical 
transposition  of  the  terms;  a^,  "I  was  eyes  to  the  blind,  and  feet  was  /  to 
*he  lame." — Job,  xxix,  15. 

"  Far  other  scene  is  Thrasymene,  now." — Byron. 

Obs.  5.— In  some  peculiar  constructions,  botli  words  naturally  come  before 
the  verb  ;  as,  "I  know  not  tvho  she  is." — "  Inquire  thou  whose  son  the  stripling 
is." — 1  Sam.,  xvii,  56.  "  Man  would  not  be  the  creature  which  he  now  is." — 
Blair.  "I  could  not  guess  wj^o  it  should  be." — Addison.  And  they  are 
sometimes  placed  in  this  manner  by  hyperhaton,  or  transposition ;  as,  "  Yet 
lie  it  is." — Young.     "  No  contemptible  orator  he  was." — iJr.  Blair. 

Ocs.  6. — As  infinitives  and  participles  have  no  nominatives  of  their  own, 
Buch  as  are  not  transitive  in  themselves,  may  take  ditierent  eases  after  them ; 
and,  in  order  to  determine  what  case  it  is  that  follows  them,  the  learner 
must  carefully  observe  what  preceding  word  denotes  the  same  person  or 
thiiag.    This  word  being  often  remote  and  sometimes  understood,  the  sense 


214  INSTITUTES   OF  ENGLISH   GRAMMAE.     [PART  III. 

is  the  only  clew  to  the  construction.  Examples  :  "  WTio  then  can  hear  the 
thought  of  being  an  outcast  from  his  presence  V'— Addison,  "/cannot  help 
being  so  passionate  an  admirer  as  I  am." — Steele.  "  To  recommend  what  tho 
soberer  jiart  of  mankind  look  upon  to  be  a  trifle.'''— Id.  "It  would  be  a  ro- 
mantic madness,  for  a  man  to  be  a  lord  in  his  closet."— 7J.  "  To  affect  to  be 
a  hrd  in  one's  closet,  would  be  a  romantic  madness.''''  In  this  last  sentence, 
l(jrd  is  iu  the  objective  after  to  be;  and  madness,  in  the  nominative  after  iwuW 
be. 

FALSE   SYNTAX   UNDER   RULE   XXL — SAME   CASES. 
We  did  not  know  that  it  -svas  him. 

[FoRjrui.E.— Not  proper,  because  tlio  pronoun  him,  which  belongs  .ifter  the  neuter 
verb  «Ort-s,  is  in  the  ol^jective  case,  ami  does  not  aicrce  v.-ith  tlio  pronoun  it,  which  he- 
lonfTS  before  it  as  the  noniinativc;  both  words  reforrins;  to  tlic  same  thintr.  But,  ac- 
cording to  Rule  21st,  "Active-intransitive,  passive,  and'  neuter  verbs,  and  their  par- 
ticiples, take  the  same  case  after  as  before  them,  when  both  words  refer  to  the  same 
thing."    Therefore,  him  should  be  he;  thus,  Wo  did  not  know  that  it  was  he.\ 

We  thought  it  was  thee. 

I  would  act  the  same  part,  if  I  were  him. 

It  could  not  have  been  her.        ' 

It  is  not  me,  that  he  is  angry  with. 

They  believed  it  to  be  I. 

It  was  thought  to  be  him. 

If  it  had  been  her,  she  would  have  told  us. 

"We  know  it  to  be  they. 

Whom  do  you  think  it  is  ? 

AVho  do  you  suppose  it  to  be  ? 

We  did  not  know  whom  they  were. 

Thou  art  him  whom  they  described. 

Impossible  !  it  can't  be  me. 

Whom  did  he  think  you  were'? 

Whom  say  ye  that  I  am  ? 

RULE  XXII.— OBJECTIVES, 

Prepositions  govern  the  Objective  case:  as, 
"  Truth  and  good  are  one : 
And  beauty  dwells  in  thera.^  and  they  in  liex^ 
With  like  participationy — Akenside. 

OBSERVATIONS    ON    RULE    XXII. 

Obs.  1. — Most  of  the  prepositions  may  take  the  imperfect  participle  for  their 
object;  and  some,  the  preperfect,  or  pluperfect :  as,  ^'On  opening  the  trial, 
they  accused  him  ofluiving  defrauded  them.'"— '■'■  A  C[uick  wit,  a  nice  judge- 
ment, &c.,  could  not  raise  this  man  above  fmng  received  only  upon  the  foot 
of  contributing  Xo  m\i-i\\  and.  d'we.vs.wn.'"— Steele.  And  the  preposition  to  is 
often  followed  by  an  infinitive.  But,  as  prepositions,  when  they  introduce 
deelmable  words,  or  words  that  luavo  eases,  always  govern  the  objective,  there 
are  ^rQT^&r\yno  except'wns  to  the  foregoin,;)-  rule.— Let  not  the  learner  suppose, 
that  infinitives  or  participles,  when  they  are  governed  bv  prepositions,  are 
therefore  in  tlie  objective  ccme  ;  for  case  is  no  attribute  of  either  of  them.  They 
are  governed  as pavHc'iples  or  as  infinitives,  and  not  as  cases.    The  mere  fact 


CHAP.  Ill,]      SYNTAX.— RULE  XXII.— OBJECTIVES.  215 

of  government  is  so  far  from  creating  the  modification  governed,  that  it 

necessarily  presupposes  it  to  exist. 

Obs.  2. — rrepositions  are  sometimes  ellipticaUf/ construed  with  adjectives ; 
ns,  in  rain,  in  .secret,  atjird,  on  high  ;  i.  c.,  in  a  vain  manner,  in  seci-et placen^ 
at  the  first  time,  on  high  -places.  Such  phrases  imply  time,  place,  de^'rec,  or 
manucr,  and  are  equivalent  to  adverbs.  In  parsing,  the  learner  may  supply 
the  ellipsis. 

Ob3.  3. — In  a  few  instances  prepositions  precede  adverhs  ,•  as,  at  once, from 
above,  for  ever.  These  should  be  united,  and  parsed  as  adverh.i,  or  else  tlio 
adverb  must  be  parsed  as  a  noun,  according  to  observation  3d  on  Kule  15th. 

Obs.  4.— Wlien  nouns  of  time  or  measure  are  connected  with  verbs  or  ad- 
jectives, the  prepositions  which  govern  them,  are  generally  suppressed  :  as, 
"  We  rode  sixty  miles  that  day;"  that  is,  "  through  sixty  miles  c/i  that  day." 
— "  The  wall  is  ten  feet  high ;"  that  is,  "  high  to  ten  feet."  In  parsing,  sup- 
ply the  ellipsis ;  or  else  you  must  take  the  time  or  measure  adverbially,  as 
relating  to  the  verb  or  adjective  qualified  by  it.  Such  expressions  as,  "  A 
board  of  six  feet  long," — "  A  boy  of  twelve  years  old,"  are  wrong.  Strike 
out  of;  or  say,  "  A  board  of  six  feet  in  length,''^ — •"  A  boy  of  twelve  years  of 
age.'''' 

Obs.  5. — After  the  adjectives  lilce,  near,  and  nigh,  the  preposition  to  or  un- 
to is  often  understood;  as,  "It  is  like  \to  or  unto']  silver." — Allen.  "IIo-\V 
lile  the  former !" — Dnjden.  ^'■Xear  yonder  copse." — Goldsmith.  ^'■Nigh  this 
recess." — Garth.  As  similarity  and  proximity  are  relations,  and  not  qual- 
ities, it  might  seem  proper  to  call  like,  near,  and  nigh,  prepositions;  and 
some  grammarians  have  so  classed  the  last  two.  Dr.  Johnson  seems  to  bo 
hiconsistent  in  calling  near  a  preposition  in  the  phrase,  "/So  near  thy  heart," 
and  an  ailjective,  in  the  phrase,  "  Being  near  their  master  1"  We  have  not 
placed  them  with  the  prepositions  for_/o»r  reasons :  (1.)  Because  they  aro 
sometimes  compa/W*  (2.)  Because  they  sometimes  have  adverbs  evidently 
relating  to  them ,  (3.)  Because  the  preposition /o  or  ««to  is  sometimes  ex- 
pressed after  them;  and,  (4.)  Because  the  words  wliioh  ws?/a%  stand  for 
them  in  the  learned  languages,  are  clearly  adjectives.  Like,  when  it  expresses 
Bimilarity  of  manner,  and  nea^'  and  7ugh,  when  they  express  proximity  of 
degree,  are  adverbs. 

Obs.  6. — The  word  wortTi  is  often  followed  by  an  adjective,  or  a  participle, 
which  it  appears  to  ;7i9iw« ;  as,  "If  your  arguments  produce  no  conviction, 
they  are  M'o?'<A  nothing  to  me." — Beatt'ie.  "To  reign  is  rcortA  ambition." — ■ 
Milton.  "This  is  life  indeed,  life  wwi'A  preserving." — Addison.  It  is  not 
easy  to  determine  to  what  part  of  speech  -worth  here  belongs.  Dr.  Johnson, 
calls  it  an  adjective,  but  says  nothing  of  the  object  after  it,  M'hieh  some  sup- 
pose to  be  governed  by  of  understood.  In  this  supposition,  it  is  gratuitously 
assumed,  that  worth  is  equivalent  to  ■j'.w^'Z!.;/,  after  which  r^"  should  be  ex- 
pressed; as,  "  Whatsoever  is  uK/r thy  of  thc'ir  love,  is,  tvorth  their  anger." — 
Denham.  But,  as  tvorth  appears  to  nave  no  certain  characteristic  of  an  ad- 
jeciive,  some  call  it  a  noun,  and  suppose  a  double  ellipsis ;  as,  "  The  book  is 
[of  the]  worth  [of]  a  dollar."  This  is  still  less  satisfactory;  and,  as  tho 
whole  appears  to  bo  mere  guess-work,  we  see  no  good  reason  why  u'orth  is 
not  a  preposition,  governing  the  noun  or  participle.  If  an  adverb  precede 
vo-rth,  it  may  as  well  be  referred  to  tho  foregoing  verb,  as  when  it  occurs 
before  any  other  preposition. 

Obs.  7. — Both  Dr.  Johnson  &n<l  Borne  Tooke,  (who  never  agreed  if  they 
could  help  it,)  unite  in  saying  that  worth,  in  the  phrases,  "Wo  worth  the 
man," — "  Wo  xvorth  the  day  "  &c.,  is  from  the  imperative  of  the  Saxon  verb 
urytlian  or  tveorthan,  t»  be;  i.  e.,  "  Wo  be  [to]  the  man,"  or,  "  Wo  betide  the 
man,"  &c.  And  the  latter  affirms,  that,  as  by  is  from  the  imperative  of  beon, 
to  le,  so  iL'ith  (though  admitted  to  be  sometimes  from  witkan,  to  join)  is  often 
no  other  than  this  same  imperative  verb  wyrth  or  ivorth:  if  so,  the  words  by, 
with,  and  tvorth,  were  originally  synonymous,  and  should  now  be  referred  to 
one  and  the  same  class.  The  dative  case,  or  oblique  obieet,  which  they  gov- 
erned as  Saxon  verbs,  becomes  their  proper  object,  when  taken  as  English 
prepositions ;  and  in  this  also  they  appear  to  be  alike. 

(jiis.  8. — After  verbs  iii  giving,  procur'mg,  and  some  others,  there  is  usually 


216  INSTITUTES   OF  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.     [PART  III. 

an  ellipsis  of  io  or  for  before  the  objective  of  tlie  person;  as,  "  Give  \to]  him 
water  to  drink."--'- J?ny  [for]  mo  a  knife."  So  in  the  exclamation,  "Wo 
is  meP'' — meaning,  "  \Vo  is  to  me  !" 

FALSE   SYNTAX    UNDER   RULE    XXII. OBJECTIVES. 

It  rests  with  thou  and  me  to  decide. 

[FoKMULE. — ^Not  proper,  because  the  pronoun  thnu  is  in  the  nominative  case,  and 
Is  governed  \>y  the  jireposition  with.  But,  according  to  Kule  22d,  "  Prepositiuns 
pjvei-n  the  objective  case."  Therefore,  thou  should  huthee;  thus,  It  rests  wilh  ihoA 
and  me  to  decide,] 

Let  that  remain  a  secret  between  you  and  I. 

I  lent  the  book  to  some  one,  I  know  not  who  • 

Who  did  he  inquire  for?     Thou. 

From  he  that  is  needy,  turn  not  away. 

We  are  all  accountable,  each  for  his  own  act's. 

Docs  that  boy  know  who  he  is  speaking  to  ? 

I  bestow  mv  favours  on  whosoever  I  will. 

RULE  XXIII.— INFINITIVES. 

The  preposition  TO  governs  the  Infinitive  mood,  and 
commonly  connects  it  to  a  finite  verb;  "I  desire  TO 
fcarn." — I)r.  Adam. 

OBSERVATIONS    OW    RULE    XXIII. 

Oes.  1.— No  word  is  more  varionsly  explained  by  grammarians,  than  this 
word  TO,  wliich  is  prefixed  to  the  verb  in  tlic  infinitive  mood.  Johnson, 
Walkei;  Scott,  Todd,  and  other  lexicograpliers,  call  it  an  adverb ;  but,  in  ex- 


ascribe  it  to  the  government  of  tlie  verb,  and  others  ■  do  not.  Loioth  says, 
" The  preposU'mi  to  placed  before  the  verb,  malces  the  infinitive  mood." 
Skhmer,  in  his  Caium^s Etymologici,  calls  it  an  equivocal  article.  Home  Tooke, 
who  shows  that  most  of  our  conjunctions  and  prepositions  may  be  traced 
back  to  ancient  verbs  and  nouns,  says  that  to  has  the  same  origin  as  do,  and 
lie  seems  to  consider  it  an  auxiliary  verb.  Many  are  content  to  call  it  n  pre- 
fix, a. particle,  a.  sign  of  the  infinitive,  &c.,  without  telling  us  wh/  or  how  it  is 
60,  or  to  what  part  of  speech  it  belongs.  If  it  be  sypart  of  the  infinitive,  it  is  a 
verb,  and  must  be  classed  witli  the  auxiliaries.  Jjr.  Ash  placed  it  among  the 
auxiliaries;  but  he  says,  the  auxiliaries  "seem  to  have  the  nature  of  a(^- 
verbs.^^  We  liave  given  in  the  preceding  rule  that  explanation  which  we 
consider  to  be  the  most  correct  and  the  most  simple.  Who  first  parsed  the 
infinitive  in  this  manner  we  know  not ;  the  doctrine  is  found  in  several 
English  grammars,  one  of  which,  written  by  n  classical  teacher,  was  pnibhsbed 
in  London  in  1796. — See  Coar^s  Grammar,  12mo,  p.  263. 

Obs.  2. — Most  English  grammarians  have  considered  the  word  to  as  a  pari 
of  the  Infinitive;  and,  like  the  teachers  of  Latin,  have  referred  the  govern- 
ment of  this  mood  to  a  preceding  verb.  Bat  the  rule  which  they  give  is 
partial,  and  often  inapplicable;  and  their  exceptions  toJt  are  numerous  and 
puzzling.  They  teach  that  at  least  half  the  ditforent  parts  of  speech  f requent- 
?y  govern  the  infinitive:  if  so,  there  should  be  a  distinct  rale  for  each;  tor 
why  should  the  government  of  one  part  of  speech  be  made  an  exception  to 
that  of  an  other  ?  and,  if  this  be  done,  with  respect  to  the  infinitive,  why  not 
alao  Vv'itLi  respeet  to  the  objective  case?    In  all  instances  to  which  their  rule 


CHAP.  III.]      SYNTAX.— RULE  XXIII.— INFINITIVES.        217 

JB  applicable,  the  rnlc  here  given  amounts  to  the  yame  thing ;  and  it  obviatea 
the  necessity  for  their  numerous  exceptions,  and  the  cinbiirrassment  arising 
from  other  constructions  of  the  intiiiitive  not  noticed  in  theni. 

Ob3.  3. — The  infinitive  thus  admits  a  siinpier  solution  in  EngKsJi,  than  in 
most  other  languages,  lu  French,  the  inlinitive,  thougli  frequently  phiced 
in  immediate  dependence  on  an  other  verb,  may  also  be  governed  by  several 
different  prepositions,  (as  a,  de,  pmir,  sans,  aprh,)  according  to  the  sense.* 
In  Spanish  and  Italian,  the  construction  is  similar.  In  Latin  and  Greek,  the 
infinitive  is,  for  the  most  part,  dependent  on  an  other  verb  But,  according 
to  the  grammars,  it  may  stand  for  a  noun  in  all  the  six  cases;  and  many 
have  called  it  an  indeclinable  noun.  See  the  Port-Royal  Latin  and  Greek 
Oramm/xrs  ;  in  which  several  peculiar  constructions  of  the  inliuitire,  are  re- 
ferred to  the  government  of  a /^/•<'^osiiio«. 

Obs.  4.— Though  the  infinitive  is  commonly  made  an  adjunct  to  some  finite 
verb,  yet  it  m:iy  be  joined  to  almost  all  the  other  parts  of  speech,  or  to  aa 
other  infinitive;  as, 

1.  To  a  noun ;  as,  "  He  had  leave  to  go.'''' 

2.  To  an  adjective  ;  as,  "  We  vrere  anxious  to  see  you." 
S.  To  a, pronoun  :  as,  "  I  discovered  him  to  be  a  scholar." 

4.  To  a  verb  in,  the  infinitive  ;  as,  '■'■To  cease  to  do  evil." 

5.  To  a. participlt ;  as,  '■^Endeavouring  to  escape,  he  fell." 

6.  To  an  adverb;  as,  "She  is  old  enovgh  to  go  to  school  ' 

7.  To  a  conjunction  ;  as,  "  He  knows  better  than  to  trud  you." 

8.  To  a. prepos'ition ;  as,  "  I  was  about  to  zvrite.^^ — Jiev.,  x,  4. 

9.  To  an  interjection ;  (by  ellipsis;)  as,  '■'Otc forget  her !" — Young. 

Obs.  5.— The  infinitive  is  the  mere  verb,  without  iillirmatiou ;  aad,  in 
tome  respect,  resembles  a  noun.     It  may  stand  for — 

1.  A  subject  ;  as,  "To  steal  is  sinful," 

2.  K  predicate;  as,  "To  enjoy  'xs,  to  obey.'''' — PopU 

S.  A  purpose,  or  an  end  ;  as,  "  He 's  gone  to  do  it." — Edgeworth. 

4.  An  employment ;  as,  "  He  loves  to  ride.^'' 

5.  A  cause  ;  as,  "  1  rejoice  to  hear  it." 

6.  A  coming  event ;  as,  "A  structure  soon  fe)_/'aZZ." — Couper. 

*!.  A  term  of  comvarison  ;  as,  "  He  was  so  much  affected  as  to  weepy 

Obs.  6. — Ancientiy,  the  infinitive  was  sometimes  preceded   by^o?  as  wc^ 

as  to  ;  as,  "  1  went  n'p  to  Jerusalem /or  to  worship."— ^eis,  xxiv,  11.    "  What 

■went  ye  out/or  to  see?" — Luke,  vii,  26. 

•"  Learn  skilfullie  how 

Each  grain yb?-  to  laie  by  itself  on  a  mow." — lusser. 

Modern  usage  rejects  the  former  prepositi-jn. 

Obs.  7.— The  infinitive  sometimes  depends  on  a  verb  understood  ;  as,  ^'■To 
be  c.indid  with  you,  [I  confess]  I  was  in  fault."  Some  grammarians  have  er- 
roneously taught  that  the'infimtive  in  such  sentences  'Kput  absolute. 

Obs.  8. — The  infinitive,  or  a  phrase  of  whicli  the  infinitive  is  a  part,  being 
introduced  apparently  as  the  subject  of  a  verb,  but  superseded  by  some  other 
word,  IS  put  aosolute,  or  left  unconnected,  by  pleonasm;  as, 

"7b  be,  or  not  to  be; — that  is  the  question." — Shahspeare. 

Obs.  9.— The  infinitive  of  the  verb  he,  is  often  understood ;  as,  "  I  supposa 
It  [to  be]  necessary."     [See  Obs.  2d  on  Rule  xxiv.J 

Obs.  10. — The  infinitive  W'&waW^ follows  the  word  on  which  it  depends; 
but  this  order  is  sometimes  reversed  ;  as, 

'■'■To  catch  your  vivid  scenes,  too  gross  her  hand." — Tftomson. 


*  "La  proposition,  est  iin  mot  indeclinable,  ploce  (levant  les  noms,  les  pronoms,  et 
les  reri<?*%  qu'elle  7'.'(7?'t — The  preposition  Is  an  indeclinable  word  placed  t>efore  the 
Bouns,  pronouns,  an(i  verhfi,  which  it  {/overns." — Perrin's  Grammar,  v.  152 

'■  Every  verb  placed  iiiimediatcly  after  an  other  vert),  or  after  a  preposition,  ousbt 
to  be  put  in  tlie  injinilire;  because  it  Is  then  the  regimen  of  the  verb  or  preposition 
»hich  precedes." — Grant,  ues  Gram,  pur  Girault  t)u  Vivier,  p.  774. 

10 


218  INSTITUTES   OF  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR.    [P ART  III. 

FALSE  SYNTAX   UNDER  RULE  XXIII. — INFINITIVES. 
Ought  these  things  be  tolerated  ? 


tlius,  Ought  these  things  to  be  tolerated?] 

Please  excuse  my  son's  absence. 
Cause  every  man  go  out  from  me. 
Forbid  them  enter  the  garden. 
Do  you  not  perceive  it  move  ? 
Allow  otliers  discover  your  merit. 
He  was  seen  go  in  at  that  gate. 
Permit  me  pass  this  way. 

RULE  XXIV.— INFINITIVES. 

The  active  verbs,  hid,  dare^  feel,  hear,  let,  make,  need, 
see,  and  their  participles,  usually  take  the  Infinitive  after 
them,  without  the  preposition  to  :  as,  "  If  he  bade  thee 
depart,  how  darest  thou  stay  f ' 

OBSERVATIONS    ON    RULE    XXIV. 

Oes.  1.— The  preposition  is  almost  always  employed  after  fhe  passive  form 
of  these  verbs,  and  in  some  instances  after  the  active  :  as,  "  He  was  heard  to 

Bay." "  1  cannot  see  to  do  it." — "  What  would  dare  to  molest  him  who 

might  call,  on  every  side,  to  thousands  enriched  by  his  hountyV— Br.  John- 

son.. 

0-BS.  2. — The  auxiliary  be  of  the  passive  infinitive  is  also  suppressed,  after 
feel,  hear,  make,  and  see  ;  as,  "  I  heard  the  letter  read,'"— not,  '■'he  read. 

Obs.  3.— A  few  other  verbs,  besides  the  eight  which  are  mentioned  in  the 
foregoing  rule,  sometimes  have  the  infinitive  after  them  without  to;  such  as, 
behold,  find,  hate,  help,  mark,  observe,  and  other  equivalents  oisee.  Example: 
"Certa'inly  it  is  heaven  upon  earth,  to  have  a  man's  mind  move  in  charity, 
rest  in  Providence,  and  turn  upon  the  poles  of  truth."— ZJ.  Bacon. 

FALSE  SYNTAX   UNDER  RULE  XXIV. — INFINITIVES. 
They  need  not  to  call  upon  her. 

rFoRMtJLE  —Not  proper,  because  the  proposition  to  is  Inserted  before  call,  which 
follows  the  .ictivo  verb  ?!««<?.  But,  according  to  Kule  24th,  "Tlie  active  verbs  i-irf, 
dare  feel,  hear,  let,  make,  need,  see,  and  their  participles,  usually  take  the  Intlnitlve 
lifter  theui,  without  the  preposition  to."  Therefore,  to  should  be  omitted;  tliua,  fhey 
need  not  call  upon  hei.] 

1  felt  a  chilling  sensation  to  creep  over  me. 

1  have  heard  him  to  mention  the  subject. 

Bid  the  boys  to  come  in  immediately. 

]  dare  to  say  he  has  not  go!;  home  yet. 

Let  no  rash  promise  to  be  made 

We  sometimes  see  bad  men  to  be  honoured. 

A  good  reader  will  make  himself  to  be  distinctly  heard. 


CHAP.  III.]   SYNTAX.— RULE  XXV.— NOM.  ABSOLUTE.      219 

RULE  XXV.— NOM.  ABSOLUTE. 

A  noun  or  a  pronoun  is  put  absolute  in  the  Nomi- 
native, when  its  case  depends  on  no  other  word:  as,  '^^ He 
failing^  who  shall  meet  success?" — ^^  Your  fathers,  where 
are  they?  and  the  2^roj,hets,  do  they  live  forever?" — - 
Zech.,  i,  5. 

"  This  said,  he  form'd  thee,  Adam!  thee,  0  man! 
Dust  of  the  ground!" — Milton. 

ODSERVATIONS    ON   RULE    XXV. 

Obs.  1. — In  parsing  the  nominative  absolute,  tell  how  it  ia  put  so,  whether 
■with  a.  participle,  by  direct  address,  by  pleonasm,  or  by  exclanuttion :  for  a 
noun  or  a  pronoun  is  put  absolute  in  the  nominative,  under  the  following 
/our  circumstances: 

1.  When,  with  a  participle,  it  is  used  to  express  a  cause,  or  a  concomitant 
fact;  as, 

'■'■Thou  loohing  on. 

Shame  to  bo  overcome  or  oven'each''d, 
Would  utmost  vigor  raise." — Milton. 
'2.  "When,  ly  direct  address,  it  is  put  in  the  second  person,  and  set  off  from 
the  verb  by  a  comma;  as,  "At  length,  Seged,  reflect  and  be  wise."— i>r. 
Johnson. 


thou  hast  created  them.^'—Fsalms,  Ixxxix,  12.    [See  the  figure  Pleonasm,  m 

YAliT  IV.]  » 

4.  When,  7^y  me?'e  exclamation,  it  is  used  without  address,  and  without 
Other  words  expressed  or  implied  to  give  it  construction  ;  as, 
"Oh!  deep  enchanting  joreZj/Je  to  repose. 
The  daicn  of  bliss,  the  twilight  of  our  woes  !" — Campbell. 

Obs.  2. — The  noiTiinativo  ^ut  absolute,  with  a  participle,  is  equivalent  to  a 
dependent  clause,  commencing  M'ith  when,  ivhile,  if^  since,  or  because ;  as,  "  I 
being  a  child," — equal  to,  "  When  I  was  a  child.'' 

Obs.  3. — The  participle  being  is  often  understood  after  nouns  or  pronouns 
put  absolute ;  as, 

"  Alike  in  itrnorance,  his  reason  [ ]  such, 

Whether  he  thinks  too  little  or  too  much." — Pope. 

Obs.  4. — All  nouns  in  the  second  person  are  either  put  absolute,  according 
to  Kule  25th,  or  in  apposition  with  their  own  pronouns  placed  before  theni^ 
according  to  Rule  3d :  as,  "  This  is  the  stone  which  was  set  at  nought  of 
you  Ifuilaers.''^ — Acts. 

"  Peace !  minion,  peace  !  it  boots  not  me  to  hear 
The  selfish  counsel  of  you  hangers-on.-^ — Author. 

Obs.  5.— Nouns  preceded  by  an  article,  arc  almost  always  in  the  third  per- 
ton ;  and,  in  exclamatory  phrases,  such  nouns  sometimes  appear  to  liave  no 
determinable  construction ;  as,  "  O  the  depth  of  the  riches  both  of  the  wisdom 
and  knowledge  of  God."— ^om.,  xi,  33. 

Obs.  6. — The  case  of  nouns  used  in  exclamations,  or  in  mottoes  and  ab- 
breviated sayings,  often  depends,  or  may  be  conceived  to  depend,  on  some- 
thing ««^«rstooc?  ;  and,  when  their  construction  can  be  satisfactorily  explained 
on  the  principle  of  ellipsis,  they  are  not  put  absolute.  The  following  examples 
may  perhaps  be  resolved  in  this  manner,  though  the  expressions  will  lose 
ttuek  of  their  vivacity :  '■'■Ahorse!  a  horse!  my  kingdom  lor  a  horse!"— 


220  INSTITUTES   OF   ENGLISH   GRAMMAE.     [PART  III. 

ShaJc.    '•'•Eeaps  upon  heaps,"  — '■^Shln  for  skin," — "  An  eye  for  an  eye,  and  a 
tooth  for  a  tooth,"— "Z'a^  after  day,"—"  World  without  end."— J5^6fe. 

FALSE   SYNTAX    UNDER  RULE   XXV, — NOM.    ABSOLUTE. 
Him  having  ended  his  discourse,  the  assembly  dispersed. 

[FoRMULE. — Not  proper,  because  the  pronoun  him.  whoso  case  depends  on  no  other 
■word,  is  In  the  objective  case.  But,  accordins;  to  Rule  25th,  "  A  noun  or  a  pronoun 
is  put  absohite  in  the  nominative,  when  its  case  depends  on  no  other  word.  There- 
fore, him  should  be  he> ;  thus,  He  having  ended  his  discourse,  the  assembly  dispersed.] 

Me  being  young,  they  deceived  me. 

Them  refusing  to  comply,  I  withdrew. 

Thee  being  present,  he  would  not  tell  what  he  knew. 

The  child  is  lost ;  and  me,  Avhither  shall  I  go  ? 

Oh  happy  us  !  surrounded  thus  with  blessings  ! — Murray^ 

"  Thee  too !  Brutus,  my  son  !"  cried  Csesar  overcome. 

But  him,  the  chieftain  of  them  all, 

His  sword  hangs  rusting  on  the  wall. 

Her  quick  relapsing  to  her  forrier  state, 

With  boding  fears  approach  the  serving  train. 

There  all  thy  gifts  and  graces  we  display, 
Thee,  only  thee,  directing  all  our  way. 

EULE  XXVL— SUBJUNCTIVES. 

A  future  contingency  is  best  expressed  by  a  verb  in 
the  Subjunctive  present;  and  a  mere  supposition  with 
indefinite  time,  by  a  verb  in  the  Subjunctive  imperfect: 
but  a  conditional  circumstance  assumed  as  a  fact,  requires 
the  Indicative  mood:  as,  "If  t\iO\i  forsake  him,  he  will 
cast  thee  off  forever." — "  If  it  were  not  so,  I  would  have 
told  you." — "If  thou  ivent,  nothing  would  be  gained." — ■ 
"  Though  he  is  poor,  he  is  contented." 

NOTES    TO    RULE    XXVI. 

Note  I. — In  connecting  words  that  express  time,  the  order 
and  fitness  of  time  should  be  observed.  Thus :  in  stead  of, 
"  I  have  seen  him  last  week.^''  say,  "  I  saiv  him  last  week ;"  and 
in  stead  of,  "  I  saw  him  this  week"  say,  "  I  have  seen  him  this 
week.''' 

Note  II, — Verbs  of  commanding;,  desiring,  expecting,  hoping, 
intending,  permitting,  and  some  others,  in  all  their  tenses,  refer 
to  actions  or  events,  relatively  present  or  future:  one  should 
therefore  say,  "  I  hoped  you  would  come^'' — not,  "  would  have 
come f  and,  "I  intended  to  do  it," — not,  '••to  have  done  it;" 
&c. 

Note  III. — Propositions  that  are  at  all  times  equally  true 


CHAP.  III.]   SYNTAX.— EULE  XXVI.— SUBJUNCTIVES.       221 

or  false,  should  generally  be  expressed  in  the  present  tense; 
as,  "  He  seemed  hardly  to  know,  that  two  and  two  viake  four," 
— not,  "  madeP 

FALSE   SYNTAX  UNDER  RULE   XXVI. — MOODS. 

Under  the  First  Clause  of  Rule  20. — Future  Contingencies. 

He  will  not  be  pardoned,  unless  he  repents. 

[FoRMTLE.— Not  proper,  because  the  verb  repents,  which  is  used  to  express  a  future 
coi\tin£;encv,  is  in  the  indicative  mood.     But.  according  to  the  lirst  clause  of  Itule  2(>tb, 
"A  future" contingency  is  best  expressed  by  a  verb  in   the   suJijunctive   present. 
Therefore,  repents,  s,ho\i\i\.  be  repent ;  tlius,  lie  will  not  be  pardoned,  unless  ho  repeTtt, 

He  will  maintain  his  cause,  though  he  loses  his  estate. 

They  will  fine  thee,  unless  thou  offerest  an  excuse. 

I  shall  walk  out  in  the  afternoon,  unless  it  rains. 

Let  him  take  heed  lest  he  falls. 

On  condition  that  he  comes,  1  consent  to  stay. 

If  he  is  but  discreet,  he  will  succeed. 

Take  heed  that  thou  speakest  not  to  Jacob. 

If  thou  castest  me  off,  I  shall  be  miserable. 

Send,  them  to  me,  if  thou  pleasest. 

Watch  the  door  of  thy  lips,  lest  thou  utterest  folly. 

Under  the  Second  Clause  of  Rule  2G. — Mere  Suppositions. 
And  so  would  I,  if  I  was  he. 

[FoRMCLE.— Not  proper,  because  the  verb  wax,  -which  is  used  to  express  a  mere  sup- 
position, with  iudetinito  time,  is  in  the  indicative  mood.  But,  accordinfr  to  the  second 
clause  of  Kulo  iOth,  "A  mere  supposition,  with  indefmitc  time,  is  best  expressed  by  a 
verb  in  the  subjunctive  imperfect.''  Therefore  icaa  should  bo  were;  thus,  And  so 
■would  I,  if  I  were  he.] 

If  I  was  to  write,  he  would  not  regard  it. 

If  thou  feltcst  as  I  do,  we  should  soon  decide. 

Though  thou  sheddest  thy  blood  in  the  cause,  it  would  but 

prove  thee  sincerely  a  fool. 
If  thou  lovedst  him,  there  would  be  more  evidence  of  it. 
I  believed,  whatever  was  the  issue,  all  would  be  well. 
If  love  was  never  feigned,  it  would  appear  to  be  scarce. 
There  fell  from  his  eyes  as  it  had  been  scales. 
If  he  was  an  impostor,  he  must  have  been  detected. 
"Was  death  denied,  all  men  would  wish  to  die. 
O  that  there  was  yet  a  day  to  redress  thy  wrongs ! 
Though  thou  wast  huge  as  Atlas,  thy  efforts  would  be  vain. 

Under -the  Last  Clause  of  Rule  26. — Assumed  Facts. 
If  he  know  the  way,  he  does  not  need  a  guide. 

[FoRitri.K.— Not  proper,  because  the  verb  knoio,  which  is  used  to  express  a  condi- 
tional circumstance  assumed  as  a  fact,  is  in  the  subjunctive  mood.  But,  according  ta 
Jhe  last  clause  of  Kule  26th,  "  A  conditional  circumstance  assumed  as  a  fact,  requires 
the  indicative  mood."  Therefore,  know  should  be  knows;  thus,  If  lie  knows  the  way, 
bo  does  not  need  a  guide.] 


222  INSTITUTES   OF  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.     [PART  IIL 

Though  he  seem  to  bo  artless,  he  has  deceived  us. 

If  he  think  as  he  speaks,  he  may  be  safely  trusted. 

Though  this  event  be  strange,  it  certainly  did  happen. 

If  thou  love  tranquillity  of  mind,  seek  it  not  abroad. 

If  seasons  of  idleness  be  dangerous,  what  must  a  continued 

habit  of  it  prove? — Blair. 
Though  he  were  a  son,  yet  learned  he  obedience  by  the  things 

which  he  suflered. 
I  knew  thou  wert  not  slow  to  hear. 

Under  Note  1 . —  Words  of  Time. 
The  work  has  been  finished  last  week. 
He  was  out  of  employment  this  fortnight. 
This  mode  of  expression  has  been  formerly  in  use. 
I  should  be  much  obliged  to  him  if  he  will  attend  to  it. 
I  will  pay  the  vows  which  my  lips  have  uttered  when  I  was  in 

trouble. 
I  have  compassion  on  the  multitude,  because  they  continue 

with  me  now  three  days. 
I  thought,   by  the  accent,  that  he  had  been  speaking  to  his 

child. 
And  he  that  was  dead  sat  up  and  began  to  speak. 
Thou  hast  borne,  and  hast  patience,  and  for  my  name's  sake 

hast  laboured,  and  hast  not  fainted. — Rcv.^  ii,  3. 
Ye  will  not  come  unto  me  that  ye  might  have  life. 
At  the  end  of  this  quarter,  I  shall  be  at  school  two  years. 
We  have  done  no  more  than  it  was  our  duty  to  have  done. 

Under  Note  2. — Relative  Tenses. 

"We  expected  that  he  would  have  arrived  last  night. 

Our  friends  intended  to  have  met  us. 

We  hoped  to  have  seen  you. 

He  would  not  have  been  allowed  to  have  entered. 

Under  Note  3. — Permanent  Propositions. 

The  doctor  affirmed,  that  fever  always  produced  thirst. 
The  ancients  asserted,  that  virtue  was  it  own  reward. 

PROMISCUOUS   EXAMPLES   OF   FALSE    SYNTAX. 
LESSON    I. 

[It  is  here  expected  that  the  learner  will  ascertain  for  htmself  the  proper  form  of 
eorrecting  each  example,  according  to  the  particular  Kule  or  Note  under  which  it  be- 
longs.] 

There  is  a  spirit  in  man ;  and  the  inspiration  of  the  Almighty 

giveth  them  understanding. 
My  people  doth  not  consider. 


CHAP.  III.]      SYNTAX.— ERRORS.— PROMISCUOUS.  223 

I  have  never  heard  who  they  invited. 

Then  hasten  thy  return ;  for,  thee  away, 
Nor  lustre  has  the  sun,  nor  joy  the  day. 

I  am  as  well  as  when  you  was  here. 

Tliat  elderly  man,  he  that  came  in  late,  I  supposed  to  be  the 
superintendent. 

All  the  virtues  of  mankind  are  to  be  counted  upon  a  few  fin- 
gers, but  his  follies  and  vices  are  innumerable. 

It  must  indeed  be  confessed  that  a  lampoon  or  a  satire  do  not 
carry  in  them  robbery  or  murder. 

There  was  more  persons  than  one  engaged  in  this  aflixir. 

A  man  who  lacks  ceremony,  has  need  for  great  merit. 

A  wise  man  avoids  the  showing  any  excellence  in  trifles. 

The  most  important  and  first  female  quality  is  sweetness  of 
temper. 

We  choose  rather  lead  than  follow. 

Ignorance  is  the  mother  of  fear,  as  well  as  admiration. 

He  must  fear  many,  who  many  fear. 

Every  one  partake  of  honour  bestowed  on  the  worthy. 

The  king  nor  the  queen  were  not  at  all  deceived. 

Was  there  no  difference,  there  would  be  no  choice. 

I  had  rather  have  been  informed. 

Must  thee  return  this  evening  ? 

Life  and  death  is  in  the  power  of  the  tongue. 

I  saw  a  person  that  I  took  to  be  she. 

Let  him  be  whom  he  may,  I  shall  not  stop. 

This  is  certainly  an  useful  invention. 

That  such  a  spirit  as  thou  dost  not  understand  me. 

'  It  is  no  more  but  justice,'  quoth  the  fiirmer. 

LESSON    II. 

Great  improvements  has  been  made. 

It  is  undoubtedly  true  what  I  have  heard. 

The  nation  is  torn  by  feuds  which  threaten  their  ruin. 

The  account  of  these  transactions  were  incorrect. 

Godliness  with  contentment  are  great  gain. 

The  number  of  sufferers  have  not  been  ascertained. 

There  are  one  or  more  of  them  yet  in  confinement. 

They  have  chose  the  wisest  part. 

He  spent  his  whole  life  in  doing  of  good. 

They  know  scarcely  that  temperance  is  a  virtue. 

I  am  afraid  lest  I  have  laboured  in  vain. 

Mischief  to  itself  doth  back  recoil. 

This  construction  sounds  rather  harshly. 

What  is  the  cause  of  the  leaves  curling  1 


224  INSTITUTES   OF  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.     [PART  IIL 

Was  it  thee,  that  made  the  noise  ? 

Let  thy  flock  clothe  upon  the  naked. 

Wisdom  and  knowledge  is  granted  unto  thee. 

His  conduct  was  surprising  strange. 

This  woman  taught  my  brother  and  I  to  read. 

Let  your  promises  be  such  that  you  can  perform. 

We  shall  sell  them  in  the  state  they  now  are. 

We  may  add  this  observation,  however. 

This  came  in  fashion  when  I  was  young. 

1  did  not  use  the  leaves,  but  root  of  the  plant. 

We  have  used  every  mean  in  our  power  continually. 

Pass  ye  away,  thou  inhabitant  of  Saphir. — Micah,  i,  11. 

Give  every  syllable  and  every  letter  their  proper  sound. 

LESSON    HI. 

To  know  exactly  ho\^  much  mischief  may  be  ventured  upoo 

with  impunity,  are  knowledge  enough  for  some  folks. 
Every  leaf  and  every  twig  teem  with  life. 
I  was  rejoiced  at  this  intelligence. 
At  this  stage  of  advancement,  there  is  little  difficulty  in  tha 

pupil's  understanding  the  passive  and  neuter  verbs. 
I  was  afraid  that  I  should  have  lost  the  parcel. 
Which  of  all  these  patterns  is  the  prettier? 
They  which  despise  instruction  shall  not  be  wise. 
Both  thou  and  thy  advisers  have  mistaken  their  interest. 
A  idle  soul  shall  suffer  hunger. 
The  lips  of  knowledge  is  a  precious  jewel. 
I  and  my  cousin  are  requested  to  attend. 
Can  only  say  that  such  is  my  belief. 
This  is  different  from  the  conscience  being  made  to  feel. 
Here  is  ground  for  their  leaving  the  world  with  peace. 
Where  are  you  all  running  so  fast? 
A  man  is  the  noblest  work  of  creation. 
Of  all  other  crimes  willful  murder  is  the  most  atrocious. 
The  tribes  whom  I  visited,  are  partially  civilized. 
From  hence  I  conclude  they  are  in  error. 
The  girls'  books  are  neater  than  the  boys. 
I  intended  to  have  transcribed  it. 
Shall  a  character  made  up  of  the  very  worst  passions,  pass 

under  the  name  of  a  gentleman  ? 
Rhoda  ran  in,  and  told  how  Peter  stood  before  the  gate. 
What  is  latitude  and  longitude  ? 
Cicero  was  more  eloquent  than  any  Roman. 
Who  dares  apologize  for  Pizarro  ? — who  is  but  another  nam© 

for  rapacity  ? 


CHAP.  III.]      SYNTAX.— ERRORS— PROMISCUOUS.  225 

LESSON    IV. 

Tell  me  whether  you  will  do  it  or  no. 

After  the  most  straitest  sect,  I  lived  a  Pharisee. 

We  have  no  more  but  five  loaves  and  two  fishes. 

I  know  not  who  it  was  who  did  it. 

Doubt  not,  little  though  there  be, 

But  I'll  cast  a  crumb  to  thee. — Langhorne, 

This  rule  is  the  best  which  can  be  given. 

I  have  never  seen  no  other  way. 

These  are  poor  amends  for  the  men  and  treasures  which  we 
have  lost. 

Dost  thou  know  them  boys  1 

This  is  a  part  of  my  uncle's  father's  estate. 

Many  people  never  learn  to  speak  correct. 

Some  people  are  rash,  and  others  timid :  those  apprehend  too 
much,  these  too  little. 

Is  it  lawful  for  us  to  give  tribute  to  Ctesar  or  no? 

It  was  not  worth  while  preserving  any  permanent  enmity, 

I  no  sooner  saw  my  flice  in  it,  but  I  was  startled  at  the  short- 
ness of  it. 

Every  person  is  answerable  for  their  own  conduct. 

They  are  men  that  scorn  a  mean  action,  and  who  will  exert 
themselves  to  serve  you. 

I  do  not  recollect  ever  having  paid  it. 

The  stoics  taught  that  all  crimes  were  equal. 

Every  one  of  these  theories  are  now  exploded. 

Either  of  these  four  will  answer. 

There  is  no  situation  where  he  would  be  hnppy. 

The  boy  has  been  detected  in  stealing,  that,  you  thought  so 
clever. 

I  will  meet  thee  there  if  thee  please. 

He  is  not  so  sick,  but  what  he  can  laugh. 

These  clothes  does  not  fit  me. 

The  audience  was  all  very  attentive. 

Wert  thou  some  star,  which  from  the  ruin'd  roof 
Of  shak'd  Olympus  by  mischance  didst  fall ! — Milton. 

LESSON    V. 

Was  the  master,  or  many  of  the  scholars,  in  the  rocm  ? 
His  father's  and  mother's  consent  was  asked. 
Whom  is  he  supposed  to  be  ? 
He  is  an  old  venerable  man. 
It  was  then  my  purpose  to  have  visited  Sicily. 
It  is  to  the  learner  only,  and  he  that  is  in  doubt,  that  this  as* 
sistance  is  recommended. 

10* 


226  INSTITUTES  OF   ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.    [PART  III. 

There  are  not  the  least  hope  of  his  recovery. 

Anger  and  impatience  is  always  unreasonable. 

In  his  letters,  there  are  not  only  correctness,  but  elegam'e. 

Opportunity  to  do   good  is  the  highest  preferment  which  a 

noble  mind  desires. 
The  year  when  he  died,  is  not  mentioned. 
Had  I  knew  it,  I  should  not  have  went. 
Was  it  thee,  that  spoke  to  me  ? 
The  house  is  situated  pleasantly. 
He  did  it  as  private  as  he  possibly  could. 
Subduing  our  passions  is  the  noblest  of  conquests. 
James  is  more  diligent  than  thee. 
Words  interwove  with  sighs  found  out  their  way. 
He  appears  to  be  diffident  excessively. 
The  number  of  our  days  are  with  thee. 
Like  a  fatlier  pitieth  his  children,  so  the  Lord  pitieth  them  that 

fear  him. — Fnalms,  ciii,  13. 
The  circumstances  of  this  case,  is  different. 
Well  for  us,  if  some  such  other  men  should  rise! 
A  man  that  is  young  in  years,  may  be  old  in  hours,  if  he  have 

lost  no  time. 
The  chief  captain,  fearing  lest  Paul  should  have  been  pulled 

in  pieces  of  them,  commanded  the  soldiers  to  go  down,  and 

to  take  them  by  force  from  among  them. — Acts,  xxiii,  10. 
Nay,  weep  not,  gentle  Eros ;  there  is  left  us 
Ourselves  to  end  ourselves. — Shakspeare. 


CHAPTER  lY.— GENERAL  ITEMS. 

The  following  comprehensive  canon  for  the  correction 
of  all  sorts  of  nondescript  errors  in  syntax,  a  few  gene- 
ral observations  on  the  foregoing  code  of  instructions, 
some  examples  of  false  syntax  to  be  corrected  by  the 
General  Rule,  and  a  series  of  parsing  lessons,  illustrative 
of  the  Exceptions  and  Observations  previously  present- 
ed, constitute  the  present  chapter. 

GENERAL  RULE  OF  SYNTAX. 

In  the  formation  of  sentences,  the  consistency  and 
adaptation  of  all  the  words  should  be  carefully  observed  ; 
and  a  regular,  clear,  and  correspondent  construction 
should  be  preserved  throughout. 


CHAP.  ly.]   SYNTAX. — GENERAL  RULE. — OBS.       227 

GENERAL  OBSERVATIONS  ON  THE  SYNTAX. 

Obs.  1. — In  proportion  as  the  rules  of  Syntax  are  made  few  and  general, 
they  must  be  either  vuguc  or  liable  to  exceptions.  The  number  of  tiie  prin- 
ciples wliicli  deserve  to  be  placed  in  the  rules,  is  not  fixed  by  any  obvious 
distinction;  hence  the  diversity  in  the  number  of  the  rules  as  given  by  dif- 
ferent grammarians.  In  this  matter  a  middle  course  seems  to  be  best.  We 
luive  therefore  taken  the  parts  of  speech  in  their  order,  and  comprised  all 
the  general  principles  of  relation,  agreement,  and  government,  in  tiventy-six 
leading  Rules.  Of  these  rules,  eight  (namely,  the  1st,  the  4th,  the  14th,  the 
15th,  the  16th,  the  17th,  the  18tb,  and  the'l9th,)  are  used  only  in  parsing  • 
two  (namely,  the  13th  and  the  26th,)  are  necessary  only  for  the  correction  'of 
.fahe  syntax ;  the  remaining  sixteen  answer  the  double  purpose  of  parsings 
and  correction.  The  Exceptions,  of  which  there  are  twenty-six,  belong  to 
ten  dift'erent  rules.  The  J\otes,  of  which  there  are  eighty  seven,  are  subordin- 
ate rules  of  syntax,  formed  for  the  detection  of  errors.  The  Observations,  of 
■which  there  are  about  two  hundred,  are  chiefly  designed  to  explain  the  ar- 
rangement of  words,  and  whatever  is  difficult  or  peculiar  in  construction. 

Obs.  2. — The  General  Rule  of  Syntax,  being  designed  to  meet  every  possi- 
ble form  of  error  in  construction,  necessarily  includes  all  the  particular  rules 
and  notes.  It  is  too  broad  to  convey  very  definite  instruction,  and  ought 
not  to  be  applied  were  a  special  rule  or  note  is  applicable.  A  few  examples, 
not  properly  coming  under  any  other  head,  will  serve  to  show  its  use  and 
application:  such  examples  are  given  in  the  false  syntax  below. 

Obs.  3. — In  the  foregoing  pages,  the  principles  of  syntax  or  construction, 
are  supposed  to  be  pretty  fully  developed  ;  but  there  may  be  in  composition 
many  errors  of  such  a  nature  that  no  rule  of  grammar  can  show  ivhat  should, 
he  substituted.  The  greater  the  inaccuracy,  the  more  difficult  the  correction ; 
because  the  sentence  may  require  a  change  throughout.  Thus,  the  follow- 
ing definition,  though  very  short,  is  a  fourfold  solecism:  '■'■Number  is  the 
consideration  of  an  object,  as  one  or  more.'''' — Murray.  This  sentence,  though 
written  by  one  grammarian,  and  copied  by  twenty  others,  cannot  be  cor- 
rected but  by  changing  every  word  in  it:  but  this  will  of  course  destroy  its 
identity,  and  form  an  other  sentence,  not  nn  amendment.  It  is  unfortunate  for 
youth,  that  a  volume  of  these  incorrigible  sentences  might  be  culled  from 
our  grammars!  Examples  of  fixlse  syntax  cannot  embrace  what  is  either 
utterly  wrong  in  thought,  or  utterly  unintelligible  in  1  anguage ;  for  the  writer's 
nieaning  must  be  preserved  in  the  correction,  and  where  no  sense  is  discov- 
ered, particular  improprieties  can  never  be  detected  and  proved.  The  sen- 
tence above  is  one  which  we  cannot  correct ;  but  wc  can  say  ofitr—Jirst,  that 
number  in  grammar  never  can  be  defined,  because  unity  and  plurality  have 
no  common  property — secondly,  that  number  is  not  consideratioyi,  in  any 
sense  of  the  word — thirdly,  that  an  object  is  known  to  be  one  object,  by  mere 
intuition,  and  not  by  QomidaraXAOw— and.,  fourthly ,  that  he  who  considers  an 
object  as  more  than  one,  misconceives  it ! ! ! ! 

Obs.  4. — In  the  first  eighteen  rules,  wc  have  given  the  syntax  of  all  the 
parts  of  speech  in  regard  to  relation,  and  agreement.  And,  by  placing  the 
rules  in  the  order  of  tne  parts  of  speecli,  we  hope  to  have  relieved  the  pupil 
from  all  difficulty  in  recollecting  the  numbers  by  which  they  are  distin- 
guished ;  for,  in  the  exercise  of  parsing,  it  is  very  important  that  the  Rules 
be  distinctly  and  accurately  quoted  by  the  pupil.  Relation  and  agreement 
liave  been  taken  together,  because  they  could  not  properly  be  separated. 
One  word  may  relate  to  an  other  and  not  agree  with  it;  but  there  is  never 
any  necessary  agreement  between  words  that  have  not  a  relation,  or  a  depend- 
ence on  each  other  according  to  the  sense. 

Obs.  5. — The  English  language  having  few  inflections,  has  also  few  con- 
cords or  agreements.  Articles,  adjectives,  and  participles,  which  in  many 
other  languages  agy-ee  with  their  nouns  in  gender,  number,  and  case,  have 
usually  in  English,  no  modifications  in  which  they  can  agree  with  their 
nouns.  Lowth  says,  "  The  adjective  in  English,  having  no  variation  of  gen- 
der and  number,  cannot  but  agree  with  the  substantive  in  these  respects." 
What  then  is  the  agreement  of  words  J    Can  it  be  any  thing  else  than  their 


228  INSTITUTES   OF  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR.     [PART  III. 

similarity  in  some  common  property  or  modification  ?  And  is  it  not  obvious, 
that  no  two  things  in  nature  can  any  wise  agree  or  be  alike,  except  in  some  qual- 
ity or  accident  wlucb.  belongs  to  each  of  them?  Yet  liow  often  have  Murray 
and  others,  as  well  as  Lowth,  forgotten  this !  To  give  one  instance  out  of 
many:  ^'■Gender  has  respect  only  to  the  third  person  singular  of  tlie  pro- 
ji(5un9,  he,  she.^  it.'''' — Murray,  Pierce,  Flint,  Lyon,  Bacon,  Bussell,  Fisk, 
Malthy,  Alger,  Miller,  Merchant,  Kirkham,  and  other  idle  copyists,  let,  ac- 
cording to 'these  same  gentlemen,  "Gender  is  the  distinction  0/  nouns,  with 
regard  to  sex;"  and,  "Pronouns  must  always  agree  with  their  antecedents, 
and  the  nouns  for  whicli  they  stand,  in  gender."  Now,  not  one  of  the^e 
three  careless  assertions  can  possibly  be  reconciled  with,  either  of  the 
others ! ! ! 


FALSE   SYNTAX   UNDER  THE   GENERAL   RULE. 
If  I  can  contribute  to  your  and  my  country's  glory. —  Goldsmith. 

[For.MULE.— Not  proper,  because  the  pronoun  your  has  not  a  clear  and  regular  con- 
struction.  But,  according  to  tlio  General  Kulo  of  Syntax,  "In  the  fonnation  of  sen- 
tences, the  consistency  and  adaptation  of  all  the  words  should  be  carefullv  observed; 
and  a  regular,  clear,  and  correspondent  construction  should  be  preserved  throuehout." 
The  sentence  having  a  double  meaning,  may  be  corrected  in  two  ways;  thus,  If  I 
can  contribute  to  our  country's  glory — or,  If  I  can  contribute  to  your  glory  and  that 
of  my  country.] 

Is  there,  then,  more  than  one  true  religion  1 

The  laws  of  Lycurgus  but  substituted  insensibility  to  enjoy- 
ment.—  Goldsmith. 

Rain  is  seldom  or  ever  seen  at  Lima. 

The  young  bird  raising  its  open  mouth  for  food,  is  a  natural 
indication  of  corporeal  want. —  Cardell. 

There  is  much  of  truth  in  the  observation  of  Ascham. — Id. 

Adopting  the  doctrine  which  he  had  been  taught. — Id. 

This  library  exceeded  half  a  million  volumes. — Id. 

The  Coptic  alphabet  was  one  of  the  latest  formed  of  any. — Id, 

Many  evidences  exist  of  the  proneness  of  men  to  vice. — Id. 

To  perceive  nothing,  or  not  to  perceive,  is  the  same. 

The  king  of  France  or  England  was  to  be  the  umpire. 

He  may  be  said  to  have  saved  the  life  of  a  citizen;  and,  con- 
sequently, entitled  to  the  reward. 

The  men  had  made  inquiry  for  Simon's  house,  and  stood  be- 
fore the  gate. — Acts,  x,  17. 

Give  no  more  trouble  than  you  can  possibly  help. 

The  art  of  printing  being  then  unknown,  was  a  circumstance 
in  some  respects  favourable  to  freedom  of  the  pen. 

Another  passion  which  the  present  age  is  apt  to  run  into,  is 
to  make  children  learn  all  things. —  Goldsmith. 

It  requires  few  talents  to  which  most  men  are  not  born,  or,  at 
least,  may  not  acquire. 

Nor  was  Philip  wanting  in  his  endeavours  to  corrupt  Demos- 
thenes, as  he  had  most  of  the  leading  men  in  Greece. — 
Goldsmith, 


CHAP,  IV.]      SYNTAX. — ANALYSIS   AND   PAK3ING.  229 

The  Greeks,  fearing  to  bo  surrounded  on  all  sides  wheeled 
about  and  halted,  with  the  river  on  their  backs. — /(/. 

Poverty  turns  our  thoughts  too  nnich  upon  the  supplying  of 
our  wants;  and  riches,  upon  enjoying  our  superfluities. 

That  brother  should  not  war  with  brother, 

And  worry  and  devour  each  other. —  Coivjjer. 

Such  is  the  refuge  of  our  youth  and  age ; 

The  first  from  hope,  the  last  from  vacancy. — Byron. 

Triumphant  Sylla!  couldst  thou  then  divine. 

By  aught  thau  lionians  Home  should  thus  bo  laid  ? — Id, 


EXAMPLES  FOR  ANALYSIS  AND  PARSING. 

SENTENCES    OF    PECULIAR    OR    IRREGULAR    CONSTRUCTION. 

The  ezatnples  here  c/iven,  tvith  the  subjoined  references  and  anno- 
tations, are  designed  to  illustrate,  and  exercise  the  piqnl  in, 
the  various  Observations,  Exceptions,  and  Notes  under  the 
Sections  upon  Analysis,  and  the  Rules  of  Syntax.  The 
JPraxis  is  the  same  as  in  the  p)reccdiny  Syntactical  jExerciscs. 

I.    PROSE. 

The  philosopher,  the  saint,  or  the  hero — the  wise,  the  good, 
or  the  great  man — very  often  lies  hid  and  concealed  in  a  ple- 
beian, which^  a  proper  education  might  have  disinterred  and 
brought  to  light. — Addison, 

Kuowest  thou  not  this  of  old,  since  man  was  placed  upon 
the  earth,  that  the  triumphing  of  the  wicked  is  short,  and  the 
joy  of  the  hypocrite  but"^  for  a  moment? — Job,  xx.,  4,  5. 

Wherefore  ye  needs^  must  be  subject,  not  only  for  wrath,  but 
also  for  conscience''^  sake. — Rom.,  xiii.,  5. 

For  now  I  see  through  a  glass  dai'kly  ;  but  then,  face  to 
face^  :  now  I  know  in  part ;  but  then  shall  I  know  even  as 
also  I  am  known. —  1   Cor.,  xiii.,  12. 

Ye  have  heard  that  it  hath  hccn  ^a.\il,  *■  An  eye  for  an  eye, 
and  a  tooth  for  a  tooth''^'. — Matt.,  v.,  37. 

Every  man  should  let  his  man-servant,  and  every  man  his 
maid-servant,  being  a  Hebrew  or  an  Hebrewess,  go  free  ;  that 

»  Note  V  ,  Rule  V. 

t  Obs.  3,  Note  VII..  Pvule  XV. ;  nnd  Obs.  2,  page  112. 
'  Adverb.     Contraction  of  need  is. 
d  Obs.  T,  Rule  XIX. 

e  Adverbial  phrase,  idiomatic  ;  or  independent  phrase,  ahitolitte.     [See  page  112.] 
f  Explanatory  clause,  predicate  being  understood.    Obs.  6,  iiul«  XXV. 

20 


230  INSTITUTES   OF  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR.       [PART  IIL 

none    should    serve   liitnsclf  of  tliera,   to  wits,  of   a  Jew  his 
brother. — Jcr.^  xxxiv.,  9. 

The  beautiful  forest  in  which  we  -were  encamped,  abounded 
in  bee-trees ;  that  is  to  sai/\  trees  in  the  decayed  trunks  of 
■which,  wild  bees  had  established  their  hives. — Irving. 

And  this  is  the  record  of  John,  when  the  Jews  sent  priests 
and  Levites  from  Jerusalem  to  ask  him\  '  Who  art  thou  V  And 
lie  confessed,  and  denied  not,  but  confessed,  '  I  am  not  the 
Christ.'  And  they  asked  him,  '  What  then  ?  Art  thou  Elias  V 
and  he  saith,  '  I  am  not.' — '  Art  thou  that  prophet  ?'  and  he 
answered,  '  A^o.''' — John,  i.,  19. 

The  rudiments  of  every  language,  therefore,  must  be  given 
as^  a  task,  not  as  an  amusement. —  Goldsmith. 

Time  we  ought  to  consider  as'  a  sacred  trust  committed  to 
us  by  God,  of  which  "\ve  arc  now  the  depositories,  and  [of 
which]  we  are  to  render  an  account  at  tlie  lust"^. — Blair. 

True  generosity  is  a  duty  as  indispensably  necessary  as  those'^ 
imposed  upon  us  by  law. —  Goldsmith. 

To  teach  men  to  be  orators,  is  little  less  than  to  teach  them 
to  be  ]wcts. —  Id. 

Lysippus  is  told  that  his  banker  asks  a  debt  of  forty  pounds'^, 
and  that  a  distressed  acquaintance  petitions  for  the  same  sum. 
He  gives  it,  without  hesitating,  to  the  latter ;  for  he  demands 
as  a  favor  what  the  former  requires  as  a  debt. — Id. 

The  laws  of  eastern  hospitality  allowed  them  to  enter,  and 
the  master  welcomed  them,  likt9  a  man  liberal  and  wealthy. 
He  was  skilful  enough  in  appearances  soon  to  discern^  that 
they  were  no  common  guests,  and  spread  his  table  with  magni- 
ficence.— Dr.  Johnson. 

The  year  before,  he  had  so  used  the  matter,  that,  what^  by 
force,  tohat  by  policy,  he  had  taken  from  the  Christians  abov« 
thirty  small  castles. — Knolles. 

We  exhorted  them  to  trust  in  God,^  and  to  love  one  an 
cther^. — J.  Campbell. 

With  all  due  respect  for  the  calculations  of  men  of  science,  / 

e  An  infinitive  used  as  a  conjunction. 

h  A  clause  used  as  a  conjunction. 

'  Verbs  of  asliinu  and  teaching  and  some  others  are  followed  by  two  objects,  one  a 
person,  the  other  a  thing;  here,  Mm,  and  the  following  object  clause.  See  Ob».  6 
and  7,  Itule  XX. 

k  E.xception  1,  Rule  XV. 

1  Obs.  7,  page  102. 

■"  Infinitive  phr.ise.  used  as  an  adjective  attribute. 

1  Subject  of  are  understood.     Obs.  7,  Rule  XVI. 

"  Olis.  7,  Rule  XX.     This  clause  is  a  modification  of  the  predicate. 

r  An  adjective  followed  by  to  understood.    Obs.  5,  Rule  XXII. 

q  To  dUcern  with  ita  adjuuct  clause,  modifies  eiu/ugh, 

'  Obs.  19,  Kule  V. 

•  Obs.  6,  Rule  XX. 

t  Obs.  9,  Bul«  HI. 


CHAP.  IV.]      SYNTAX. — ANALYSIS   AND   PARSING.  231 

cannot  but  remember^   that   when   most   confident,  they  havo 
eometimes  erred. 

I  could  not  do  a  better  thing  than  to  commend'^  this  habit  to 
my  brethren  as  one  closely  connected  with  their  own  personal 
piety,  and  their  usefulness  in  the  world. — A.  Barnes. 

It  is  a  good  practical  rule  to  keep  one's  reading  well  propor- 
tioned'''' in  the  two  great  divisions,  prose  and  poetry. — H.  Held. 

For  a  ^j;-/«ce  to  be  reduced  by  villany  to  my  distressful  cir- 
aimstances^,  is  calamity  enough. — Sallust. 

Who  knows  buty  that  God,  who  made  the  world,  may  cause 
that  giant  Despair  may  d\c?—Bunyan. 

What  can  be  more  strange  than,  that  an  ounce  wciglit  should 
balance  hundreds  of  pounds,  by  the  intervention  of  a  few  bars 
of  thin  iron  ?2 

This  lovely  land,  this  glorious  liberty,  these  benign  institu- 
tions, the  dear  j^urchase  of  our  fathers,  arc  ours  ;  ours  to  enjoy^ 
ours  to  preserve,  ours  to  transmit^. —  Webster. 

The  knowledge  of  why  they  so  exist^,  must  be  the  last  act 
of  favor  which  time  and  toil  will  bestow. — Rush. 

To  do  Avhat  is  right,  with  unperverted  faculties,  is  tc7i  timcs° 
easier  than  to  undo  Avhat  is  Avrong. — Porter. 

And  he  charged  them  that  they  should  tell  no  man^  ;  but 
the  more  he  charged  them,  so  much  the*^  more  a  great  deal^' 
they  published  it. — Mark\  vii.,  3G. 

For  in  tliat  he  himself  hath  suffered  beiny  temptedS,  lie  is 
able  to  succour  them  that  arc  tempted. — Hebrews,  xi.,  18. 

It  is  not  to  inflate  national  vanity,  nor  to  swell  a  light  and 
empty  feeling  of  self-importance;  but  it  is,  that  we  may  judge 
Justly  of  our  situation  and  of  our  duties^^,  that  I  earnestly 
urge  this  consideration  of  our  position  and  eur  character 
among  the  nations  of  the  earth}. —  Webster. 

I  had  rather  believe  all  tbc  fables  in  the  Legend,  and  the 

"  Iieynemher\s\\ero  infinitive  nnd  the  object  of  hut,  a.  preposition  equivalent  to 
€Xcept;  can  auxiliarv  to  do  understood. 

»   To  commend  with  its  ailjuncts,  subject  of  a  verb  understooil.     Obs.  7,  Kule  XVI. 

«•  Indirect  attriliute.     Obs.  G,  Jiage  102. 

'  Subject  infinitive  ulau.-e.     Obs. '2,  paire  1ST.     Exception  2,  Kule  XVII. 

y  Bui,  a  preposition  governing  the  tblh)wing  chiuse. 

»  The  clause  introduced  by  that,  is  tbo  subject  of  is  understood.  Obs.  7,  Eula 
XVI. 

■■>  Infinitives  used  as  adjectives  in  the  active,  instead  of  the  passive,  voice. 

1   A  clause  used  as  the  oliject  of  a  preposition.     Obs.  3.  pagy  112. 

c  Adverbial  modification  of  easier  /—a  jirepositional  i)lirase,  hy  being  understood. 

<i  Double  object. 

e  Adverbial  modification  of  more,  Itself  modified  by  so  much.  Exception  1, 
Rule  I. 

1  Adverbial  modification  of  more;  deal  governed  by  &y  understood, 

K  Clause  used  as  tlie  olgect  of  in.    Obs.  8,  pago  112. 

h  An  adjeciive  attribute  clause. 

>  Kxplaoatoiy  clause ;  adjunct  of  it. 


232  INSTITUTES  OF  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.      [PART  III. 

Talmud,  and  tlie  Alcoran,  than  that  this  universal  frame  is 
without  a  raind^. — Bacon. 

Nevertheless  there  being  others,  besides  the  first  supposed 
author,  men  not  unread  nor  unlearned  in  antiquity,  who  admit 
tliat  for  approved  story,  "which  the  former  explode  for  fiction  ; 
and  seeintr  that  ofttimes  relations  heretofore  accounted  fabu- 
lous,  have  been  after  found  to  contain  in  them  many  footsteps 
and  reliques  of  something  true,  as  what  we  read  in  poets  of 
the  flood,  and  giants  little  believed,  till  undoubted  witnesses 
taught  us,  that  all  was  not  feigned' ;  I  have  therefore  deter- 
mined to  bestow  the  telling  over  even"^  of  these  repeated  tales; 
be  it  for  nothing  else  but  in  favour  of  our  English  poets  and 
rhetoricians,  who  by  their  art  will  know  how  to  use  them  judi- 
ciously.— Milton. 

That  a  nation  should  be  so  valorous  and  courageous  to  win 
their  liberty  in  the  field,  and  when  they  have  won  it,  should  be 
so  heartless  and  unwise  in  their  counsels,  as  not  to  know  ho\T 
to  use  it,  value  it,  what  to  do  with  it,  or  with  themselves ;  but 
after  ten  or  twelve  years'  prosperous  Avar  and  contestation  with 
tyranny,  basely  and  bcsottedly  to  run  their  necks  again  into 
the  yoke  which  they  have  broken,  and  prostrate  all  the  fruits 
of  their  victory  for  nought  at  the  feet  of  the  vanquished,  be- 
sides our  loss  of  glory  and  such  an  example  as  kings  or  tyrants 
never  yet  had  the  like  to  boast  of,  will  be  an  ignominy,  if  it 
befall  us,  that  never  yet  befell  any  nation  possessed  of  their 
liberty. — /(/. 

II.     POETRY. 

See  the  sole  bliss  Ilcaven  could  on  all  bestow, 

"Which  who  but  feels,  can  taste,  but  thinks  can  know; 

Yet,  poor  with  fortune,  and  with  learning  blind, 

The  bad  must  miss,  the  good,  untaught,  will  find. — Pope. 

Shame  to  mankind!  Philander  had  his  foes; 
lie  felt  the  truths  I  sing,  and  I,  in  him  ; 
But  he^  nor  I fcvl^  more. —  Young. 

k  Oliject  clause,  hdievt  being  understood.     Without  a  mind  is  an  adjective  attri 
buto  rcfi^rrinf;  to  frame. 

1  The  part  of  tliis  sentence  ending  y/Mh  feigned  consists  of  two  very  complex  inde- 
pendent phrases,  connectad  by  and.,  one  atiHdliite,  introduced  by  then,  and  the  ollu-r 
participial,  introduced  by  seeing.  The  other  ])art  of  the  sentence  which  conies  first 
in  analysis,  may  be  resolved  into,  1,  A,  a,  b,  c,  d,  2,  e,  f,  B,  3;  and  the  independeat 
phrases  in  continuation,  into,  c,  C,  h,  D,  i,  k,  E,  4,  omitting  the  very  simple  phrases. 

ni  The  word  even,  as  very  frequently  used,  seems  to  perform  the  office  of  no  part 
of  speech,  but  to  be  employed  merely  to  give  emplioisin  to  the  (larticular  wonl  or 
phrase  which  it  precedes.  Here  it  simply  makes  the  phiase  of  these  reputed  tale.t 
emphatic.  It  has  beim  designjited  by  one  author  a  "  word  of  <MpAo«y ;"  but  with 
no  apparent  projiriety  since  euphony  and  emp/iaxis  seem  not  to  be  necessarily  iden- 
tical.    It  might  jx'rhaps  be  called  a  word  of  emphaeis, 

»  Obs.  2,  Rule  VIII. 


CHAP.  IV.]      SYNTAX. — ANALYSIS  AND   PARSING.  233" 

-  So  reads  lie  nature,  -vvliom  the  lamp  of  truth 
Illuminates  : — thy  lamp,  mysterious  AVoidl 
Wliich  whoso  sees,  no  longer  wanders  lost, 
"With  intellect  bemaz'd  in  endless  doubt, 
But  runs  the  road^  of  wisdom. —  CowpeV:, 

Yet  O  the  thought,  that  thou  art  safe^,  and  ho ! 
That  thought  is  joy,  arrive  what  may  to  nie. — Id. 

The  bless' d  to-day'^  is  as  completely  so, 

As  who  began  a^  thousand  years  ac/o^. — Pope. 

Full  ma7iy  a  gem?  of  purest  ray  serene 

The  dark  unfathom'd  caves  of  ocean  bear; 

Fall  many  a  flower  is  born  to  blush  unseen, 

And  waste  its  sweetness  on  the  desert  air. — Gray. 

Then  kneeling  down  to  heaven's  eternal  King, 
The  saint,  the  father,  and  the  husband  prays^ ; 

Hope  'springs  exulting  ou  triumphant  w'ing,' 

That  thus  they  all  shall  meet  m  future  days, — Burns. 

lie  can't  flatter,  he  ! 
An  honest  mind  and  plain  ;  ho  must  speak  truth  ; 
A-U^  they  will  hear  it,  so;  if  not,  he's  plain. — Shak. 

What^^  /  canst  thou  not  forbear  me  half  an  houA  ? 
Then  get  thee  (/one'",  and  dig  my  grave  thyself. — Id. 

If  still  she  loves  thee,  hoard  that  gem  ; 
'Tis  worth^  thy  vanish'd  diadem. — Byron. 

He  calls  for  Famine,  and  the  meagre  fiend 
Blows  mildew //-o^i  between  his  shriveVd  lips^^ 
And  taints  the  golden  ear. —  Cowper. 

Here  he  had  need 
All  circumspection  ;  and  we  now,  no  less, 
Choice  in  our  siifl'rage  ;  for  on  whom  ive  send''. 
The  weight  of  all,  and  our  last  hope  relies. — Milton^ 

b  Obs.,  Note  II.,  Euls  XX. 

<:  Afljtctive  clause  modifying  thought. 

H  blenHed-to-day,  is  used  here  as  a  noun,  equivalent  to,  77(6  man  u^ko  is  blessed 
to-day. 

e  Obs  12,  Rule  I. 

f  A  th.omaiid  years  ago  is  an  independent  phrase  (absolute)  ;  ago  being  used  fot 
affane.  gone,  or  paftt. 

s  Obs.  3.  Note  IF..  Knle  IV. 

b  Exception  1,  Rule  XI. 

1  Obs.  15,  Rule  I. 

k  Obs.  1.5.  Rule  V. 

I  Obs  4,  Rule  XXn. 

«i  Indirect  attribute.     Obs.  6,  page  102. 

»  Obs.  6.  liiile  XXII. 

»  Obs.  3,  page  112. 

20* 


234  INSTITUTES  OF  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR.      [PART  IIL 

"Who  wickedly  is  wise,  or  madly  brave, 

Is  but  the?  more  a  fool,  the  more  a  knave. — Pope. 

O  God  !  methinks^  it  were  a  bappy  life 

To  be  no  better  tbau  a  bomely  swain ; 

To  sit  upon  a  bill,  as  I  do  now, 

To  carve  out  dials  quaintly,  point  by  point. 

Thereby  to  see  the  minutes  bow  they  run. — Shah. 

Poor  guiltless  I !  and  can  I  choose  but  smile^^ 
"When  every  coxcomb  knows  me  by  my  style. — Pope, 

Me^  miserable  !  which  way  shall  I  fly 
Infinite  wrath,  and  infinite  despair  ? — Milton. 

Ay,  but  to  die\  and  we  go  we  know  not  where  ; 
To  lie  in  cold  abstraction,  and  to  rot ; 
This  sensible  warm  motion  to  become 
A  kneaded  clod  ; 

'tis  too  horrible. — Shak. 

My  soul,  turn  from  them — titrn  we^  to  survey 

AViiere  roughest  climes  a  nobler  race  display. — Goldsmith. 

Cursed  he  7"  that  did  so !     All  the  charms 

Of  Sycorax,  toads,  beetles,  bats,  Ught"^  on  you? — Shak. 

Then  thus  my  guide,  in  accent  higher  raised 
Than  I  before  had  heard  him  :  'Capaneus! 
Thou  art  more  punishM,  in  that  this  thy  pride 
Lives  yet  unquench\l'"  ;  no  torment,  save  thy  rage, 
Were*  to  thy  fury  pain  proportion'd  full.' — Cary's  Dante. 

Yet  afeio  daysY,  and  thee, 
The  all-beholding  sun  shall  see  no  more 
In  all  his  course ;  nor  yet,  in  the  cold  ground, 
IVhcre  thy  pale  form  was  laid  with  many  tears, 
Nor  in  the  embrace  of  ocean,  shall  exist 
Thy  image. — Bryant. 
Nor  then  the  solemn  nightingale  ceas'd  warbling^. — Milton. 


r  Exception  1,  Rule  I.  .   ,  t   ±-     -a-  _     /m,„    „»„-  oa 

q  Itiipersoiial  verb.     Contracted  from  it  thinks  ma,  a.  Latin  xdiom.    Obs.,  page  »8. 
r  Smile,  an  infinitive  governed  by  preposition  '>«'• 
«  Exception  to  Rule  XXV.     See  Obs.  3,  Rule  XVIII. 
t  Infliiitive  absolute.     Obs.  8,  Rule  XXIII. 
"  Imperative,  first  person.    See  Obs.,  imge  79. 

V  Imperative,  third  person,  plural. 

V  Obs.  3,  pnge  11'2. 

»  Siibiunctiv-e  mood  iisod  for  the  potential.  .  ,      .     a 

y  Independent  phrase,  days  beini:;  absolute  with  bemo  ox  pasting  understooo. 
»  Attribute.    See  Obs.  2,  Rule  XIV. 


CHAP,  v.]  SYNTAX. — QUESTIONS.  235 


CHAPTER  v.— EXAMINATION. 
QUESTIONS  ON  SYNTAX. 

LESSON   I. — DEFINITIONa. 

Of  what  does  syntax  treat  ? 

What  is  the  relation  of  words  ? — the  agreement  of  words? — the  government  o' 
words  ? — the  arrangement  of  words  '. 

XES30N  n. — THE  RULE3. 

IIow  many  epecial  rules  of  syntax  are  there? 

Of  what  do  the  first  eighteen  rules  of  syntax  treat? 

Of  what  do  the  last  eight  rules  principally  treat? 

Where  is  the  arrangement  of  words  treated  of? 

To  what  do  articles  relate  ? 

What  case  is  employed  as  the  subject  of  a  verb? 

What  agreement  is  required  between  words  in  apposition? 

To  what  do  adjectives  relate  ? 

How  does  a  pronoun  agree  with  its  antecedent  ? 

How  does  a  pronoun  agree  with  a  collective  noun? 

How  does  a  pronoun  agree  with  joint  antecedents  ? 

How  does  a  pronoun  agree  with  disjunct  antecedents? 

LESSON  m. — THE  RULES. 

How  does  a  verb  agree  with  its  subject  or  nominative? 

How  does  a  verb  agree  with  a  collective  noun  ? 

How  does  a  verb  agree  with  joint  nominatives  ? 

How  does  a  verb  agree  with  disjunct  nominatives? 

WHiat  agreement  is  required,  when  verbs  are  connected! 

How  are  participles  employed  ? 

To  what  do  adverbs  relate  ? 

What  is  the  use  of  conjunctions? 

What  is  the  use  of  prepositions  ? 

To  what  do  interjections  relate  ? 

LESSON  rV. — TOE  EULK3. 

By  what  is  the  possessive  case  governed  ? 

What  case  do  active-transiiive  verbs  govern? 

What  case  is  put  after  other  verbs  ? 

What  case  do  prepositions  govern  ? 

What  governs  the  infinitive  mood? 

What  verbs  take  the  infinitive  after  them  without  the  preposition  tot 

When  is  a  noun  or  pronoun  put  absolute? 

Wiiett should  the  subjunctive  mood  be  employed? 

LESSON   V. — THE   RULES. 

What  arc  the  several  titles,  or  subjects,  of  the  twentv-six  rules  ? 

What  says  Eule  1st?— Kule  2d?— Rule  3d  ?— Rule  4th?— Rule  5th  ?— Rule 
6th?— Rule  7th?— Rule  8th?— Rule  9th?— Rule  10th?— Rule  11th  ?— Rule 
12th?— Rule  13th?— Rule  14th?— Rule  15th?— Rule  16th?— Rule  17th  ?— 
Eule  18th  ?— Rule  19th  ?— Rule  20th  ?— Rule  21st?— Kule  22d?— Rule  23d! 
—Eule  24th?— Eule  25th?— Rale  26th? 

LESSON    VI. — EXCEPTIONS. 

What  are  the  general  contents  of  chapters  second  and  third  of  this  code  of 
syntax  ? 

What  arc  the  nature  and  purpose  of  the  notes  to  the  rules  ? 

What  is  said  of  the  correction  of  false  syntax. 

How  many  and  what  exceptions  are  there  to  Eule  1st  ? — to  Rule  2d  ? — to 
Rule  Sd?— to  Rule  4th  ?— to  Eule  5th? -to  Eule  6th?— to  Eule  7th  ?— to 
Rule  8th?— to  Eule  9th?— to  Eule  10th?— to  Eulo  11th?— to  Eule  12th  i— 


236  INSTITUTES  OF  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.     [PART  III. 

to  Rule  IStli?— to  Rule  14th?— to  Rule  15th?— to  Rule  16th?— to  Rule 

17th  ?— to  Rule  18th. 

[No'w  explain  anrl  correct  orally  all  the  false  syntax  placed  under  the  Rules  and 
Kotes;  learning  for  each  lesson  about  thirty  examples,  and  reciting  them  without  ra* 
eurrence  to  the  Key  during  the  exercise.] 

LESSON    VII. — OBSERVATIONS. 

What  is  observed  of  the  placing  of  Articles  ? — Nominatives? — Words  in  Ap- 
position ? — Adjectives  1 — Pronouns  ? — Verbs  ? — Participles  ? — Adverbs  ?— 
Conjunctions? — Prepositions? — Interjections? — Possess!  ves? — Objectives? 
— Same  Cases  ? — lutinitives  ? 

Under  how  many  and  wliat  circumstances  are  nouns  put  absolute? 
[Now  read  all  the  other  observations,  so  as  to  be  able  to  refer  to  them  if  necessary; 

and  then  parse  and  analyze  the  examples  cumuieucing  at  page  229.] 


CHAPTEE  YI.— FOR  WRITINa 

EXERCISES  IN  SYNTAX. 

]g^  ["When  the  pupil  has  been  sufficiently  exercised  in  syntactical  parsing,  and 
kas  corrected  orally,  according  to  the  formules  given,  all  the  examples  of  false  syntax 
(lesisned  for  oral  exercises;  he  should  lorite  out  the  following  exercises,  correcting 
them  according  to  the  principles  of  syntax  given  in  the  rules  and  notes.] 

EXERCISE  I.— ARTICLES. 

Christianity  claims  an  heavenly  origin. 

An  useless  excellence  is  a  contradiction  in  terms. 

It  would  have  an  happy  influence  on  genius. 

Part  not  with  a  old  friend  for  an  new  acquaintance. 

Justice  eyes  not  the  parties,  but  cause. 

I  found  in  him  a  friend,  and  not  mere  promisor. 

These  fathers  lived  in  the  fourth  and  following  century. 

The  rich  and  poor  are  seldom  intimate. 

The  Bible  contains  the  Old  and  the  New  Testaments, 

An  elegant  and  florid  style  are  very  different. 

The  humility  is  a  deep  which  no  man  can  fathom. 

The  true  cheerfulness  is  the  privilege  of  the  innocence. 

A  devotion  is  a  refuge  from  a  human  frailty. 

The  duplicity  and  the  friendship  are  not  congenial. 

The  familiarity  with  the  vicious  fosters  a  vice. 

A  forced  happiness  is  a  solecism  in  the  terms. 

The  favourites  are  generally  the  objects  of  Ac  envy. 

An  equivocation  is  a  mean  and  a  sneaking  vice. 

He  sent  an  other  and  rather  a  more  modest  letter. 

The  flatterers  are  put  to  a  flight  by  an  adversity. 

An  obstinacy  is  unflivourable  to  the  discovery  oi  the  truth. 

The  conic  sections  are  a  part  of  the  geometry. 

What  is  the  proper  meaning  of  a  Landgrave? 

Sensuality  is  one  kind  of  pleasure,  such  an  one  as  it  ia. 

What  sovereign  assumes  the  title  of  an  Autocrat  ? 


CHAP.  VI.]  SYNTAX. — EXERCISES.  237 

Bolievc  mc,  the  man  is  less  a  fool  than  a  knave. 
He  is  a  much  deeper  deceiver  than  a  suflerer. 
I^iziness  is  a  greater  thief  than  pickpocket. 
Heroes  who  then  floiu-ished,  have  passed  away. 
Time  which  is  to  come,  may  not  come  to  us. 

EXERCISE  II.— NOUNS. 

A  friend  should  bear  a  friends  infirmities'. 

Deviations'  from  rectitude  are  approaches  to  sin. 

Crafty  person's  often  entrap  themselves. 

Mens  mind's  seem  to  be  somewhat  variously  constituted 

The  great  doctors,  adept's  in  science,  often  disagree. 

The  two  men  were  ready  to  cut  each  others'  throats. 

"We  went  at  the  rate  of  five  mile  an  hour. 

His  income  is  a  thousand  pound  a  year. 

Five  bushel  of  wheat  are  worth  forty  shilling. 

Reading  is  one  mean's  of  acquiring  knowledge, 

TTie  well  is  at  least  ten  fathom  deep. 

I  shall  be  a  hundred  mile  oft' by  that  time. 

"Wisdom  and  Folly's  votaries  travel  different  roads. 

The  true  philanthropist  is  all  mankind's  friend. 

He  desires  the  whole  human  race's  happiness. 

The  idler  and  the  spendthrift's  faults  are  similar. 

A  good  mans  words  inflict  no  injury. 

Be  not  generous  at  other  peoples  expense. 

True  hope  is  swift,  and  flies  with  swallows  wings. 

Lifes  current  holds  its  course,  and  never  returns. 

Many  assume  Virtues  livery,  who  shun  her  service. 

I  left  the  parcel  at  Richardson's,  the  bookseller's. 

The  books  are  for  sale  at  Samuel  Wood's  &  Sons'. 

Where  shall  we  find  friendship  like  David's  and  Jonathan's  ? 

Acquiesce  for  peace's  and  harmony's  sake. 

The  moons  disk  often  appears  larger  than  the  sun. 

Consult  Sheridan,  Johnson,  and  Walker's  Dictionary. 

Such  was  my  uncle's  agent's  wife's  economy. 

A  frugal  plenty  marks  the  wise  mans  board. 

This  mob,  for  honesty  sake,  broke  open  all  the  prisons. 

Our  sacks  shall  be  a  mean's  to  sack  the  city. 

Such  was  the  economy  of  the  wife  of  the  agent  of  my  uncle. 

These  emmet's,  how  little  they  are  in  our  eyes ! 

Childrens  minds  may  be  easily  overloaded. 

EXERCISE  III.— ADJECTIVES. 

A  palmistry  at  which  this  vermin  are  very  dexterous. 
These  kind  of  knaves  I  know. — Shakspeare. 


2SS  INSTITUTES  OF  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.     [PART  IIL 

Vanity  has  more  subjects  than  any  of  the  passions. 

The  vain  are  delighted  with  fashionable  and  new  dresses. 

So  highly  did  they  esteem  this  goods. 

Washington  has  been  honoured  more  than  any  American. 

Which  is  the  loftier  of  the  Asiatic  mountains  ? 

This  ashes  they  were  very  careful  to  preserve. 

Is  not  she  the  younger  of  the  three  sisters  1 

Could  not  some  less  nobler  plunder  satisfy  thee  ? 

I  can  assign  a  more  satisfactory  and  stronger  reason. 

Peter  was  older  than  any  of  the  twelve  apostles. 

Peace  of  mind  is  easier  lost  than  gained. 

Of  this  victuals  he  was  always  very  fond. 

Man  has  more  wants  than  any  animal. 

Of  all  other  practical  rules  this  is  the  most  complex. 

Is  not  the  French  more  fashionable  than  any  language? 

Vice  never  leads  to  old  honoured  age. 

Cloths  of  a  more  inferior  quality  ni'e  more  salable. 

This  is  found  in  no  book  published  previous  to  mine. 

He  turned  away  with  the  most  utmost  contempt. 

Time  glides  swift  and  imperceptible  away. 

Of  their  more  ulterior  measures  I  know  nothing. 

My  three  last  letters  were  never  answered. 

Fortune  may  frown  on  the  most  superior  genius. 

It  becomes  a  gentleman  to  speak  correct. 

The  most  loftiest  mountain  is  Mont  Blanc. 

If  a  man  acts  foolish,  is  he  to  be  esteemed  wise? 

Drop  your  acquaintance  with  them  bad  boys. 

They  sat  silently  and  motionless  an  hour  and  a  halC 

Quiet  minds,  like  smooth  water,  reflect  clear. 

True  faith,  true  policy,  united  ran; 

This  was  but  love  of  God,  and  that  of  man. 

EXERCISE  IV.— PRONOUNS. 
Him  that  presumes  much,  has  much  to  fear. 
They  best  can  bear  reproof,  whom  merit  praise. 
A  few  pupils,  older  than  me,  excited  my  emulation. 
Every  man  will  find  themselves  in  the  state  of  Adam, 
None  are  more  rich  than  them  who  are  content. 
Scotland  and  thee  did  in  each  other  live. 
These  trifles  they  do  not  deserve  our  attention. 
Truth  is  ever  to  be  preferred  for  it's  own  sake. 
Thou  art  afraid — else,  what  ails  you  ? 
It  is  not  Lemuel,  but  God,  whom  you  have  offenddi 
All  things  which  have  life,  aspire  to  God. 
So  great  was  the  multitude  who  followed  him. 


CHAP.  TI.]  SYNTAX. — EXERCISES.  •  2S5 

He  which  would  advance,  should  not  look  backwards. 

It  was  Sir  Billy — who  is  an  other  name  for  a  fop. 

I  take  up  the.  arguments  in  the  order  they  stand. 

There  is  nothing,  with  respect  to  me,  and  such  as  me. 

He  that  is  bribed,  the  people  will  abhor. 

The  day  when  the  accident  happened,  is  not  recorded. 

We  know  not  who  to  trust ;  them  who  seem  fair,  are  false. 

The  reason  I  told  it  was  this :  thee  was  in  danger. 

I  did  not  know  the  precise  time  when  it  occurred. 

Here  he  answers  the  question,  who  asks  it. 

Who  who  beheld  the  outrage,  could  remain  inactive  ? 

This  was  the  prison  where  we  were  confined. 

I  could  not  believe  but  what  it  was  a  reality. 

It  was  the  boys,  and  not  the  dog,  which  broke  the  basin. 

An  unprincipled  junto  is  not  nice  about  their  means. 

The  people  forced  its  way,  and  demanded  its  rights. 

Avoid  lightness  and  frivolity :  it  is  allied  to  folly. 

Either  wealth  or  power  may  ruin  their  possessor. 

It  was  Joseph,  him  whom  Pharaoh  promoted. 

Origen's  mother  hid  his  clothes,  to  prevent  him  going. 

Hiaa  that  withholdeth  corn,  the  people  shall  curse  him. 

He  that  withholdeth  corn  the  people  shall  curse. 

I  have  always  thought  ye  honest  till  now. 

Me  being  uut  a  boy,  they  took  no  notice  of  me. 

They  that  receive  me,  I  will  richly  reward. 

Had  it  been  them,  they  would  have  stopped. 

Vain  pomp  and  glory  of  this  world,  I  hate  ye. 

It  was  not  me,  that  gave  you  that  answer. 

Between  you  and  I,  he  is  a  greater  thief  than  author. 

Any  dunoe  can  copy  what  you  or  me  shall  write. 

You  seem  to  forget  who  you  are  talking  to. 

Thee  being  «  stranger,  the  child  was  afraid. 

This  was  the  most  remarkable  event  which  occurred. 

Happy  are  them  whose  pleasure  is  their  duty. 

EXERCISE  v.— VERBS. 

Where  was  you  standing  during  the  transaction? 

Was  you  there  when  the  pistol  was  fired? 

Thou  sees  how  little  difference  there  are. 

If  he  have  failed,  it  was  not  through  my  neglect. 

Patience  and  diligence,  like  faith,  removes  mountains. 

There  was  many  reasons  for  not  disturbing  my  repose. 

The  train  of  brass  artillery  and  other  ordnance,  are  immena© 

Art  thou  the  man  that  earnest  from  Judah  1 

What  eye  those  long,  long  labyrinths  dare  explore? 


2^-'}  INSTITUTES   OF   ENGLISH   GRAMMAK.     [PAET  Til. 

Magmis  an-3  hi3  friends  'was  "barbarously  treate'd. 

The  propriety  of  tliese  restrictions,  are  unquestionable. 

And  I  am  one  that  believe  the  doctrine. 

Thou  wast  he  that  leddest  out  and  broughtest  in  Israel. 

Ireauty  without  virtue  generally  prove  a  snare. 

If  thou  means  to  advance,  eye  those  before  thee. 

A  qualification  for  high  offices,  come  not  of  indolence. 

The  desires  of  right  reason  is  bounded  by  competency. 

Useless  studies  is  nothing  but  a  busy  idleness. 

Is  virtue,  then,  and  piety  the  same  1 

So  awful  an  admonition  was  these  miraculous  words. 

If  the  great  body  of  the  people  thinks  otherwise. 

A  committee  are  a  body  that  have  only  a  delegated  power. 

In  peace  of  mind  consists  our  strength  and  happiness. 

There  is  no  slander,  where  love  and  unity  is  maintained. 

His  character,  as  well  as  his  doctrines,  were  assailed. 

Proof,  and  not  assertion,  arc  what  are  required. 

Right  reason  and  truth  is  always  in  unison. 

No  pains  nor  cost  were  spared  to  make  it  grand. 

Ignorance  stupifies,  and  is  the  source  of  many  crimes. 

, Then  wanders  forth  the  sons 

Of  Belial,  flown  with  insolence  and  wine. 

"What  you  must  chiefly  rely  on,  is  the  attested  facts. 

No  axe  or  hammer  have  over  awakened  an  echo  hert. 

Did  not  she  send,  and  gave  you  this  information  1 

Their  honours  are  departing  and  come  to  an  end. 

Neither  wit,  nor  taste,  nor  learning,  appear  in  it. 

Caligula  sat  himself  up  for  a  deity. 

A  tortoise  requested  the  eagle  to  learn  him  to  fly. 

'  O,  that  it  was  always  spring  V  said  little  Robert. 

I  at  first  intended  to  have  arranged  it  in  a  new  form. 

The  gaoler  supposed  that  the  prisoners  had  been  flei 

Peter  saw  a  vessel,  as  it  had  been  a  great  sheet. 

Peace  and  esteem  is  all  that  age  can  hope. 
Alas !  no  wife  or  mother's  care 
For  him  the  milk  or  corn  prepare. 
Thou  bark  that  sails  with  man  ! 
Haste,  haste  to  cleave  the  seas. 

EXERCISE  YII.-PARTICIPLES. 
What  dost  thou  mean  by  shaking  of  thy  head? 
A  good  end  warrants  not  using  bad  means. 
Be  cautious  in  forming  of  connexions. 
The  worshiping  the  two  calves  was  still  kept  up. 


CHAP.  VI.]  SYNTAX. — EXERCISES,  241 

In  reading  of  his  lecture,  he  was  much  embarrassed. 

This  devoting  ourselves  to  God,  must  be  habitual. 

Their  estimating  the  prize  too  highly,  was  evident. 

He  declared  the  project  to  be  no  less  than  a  tempting  Godo 

Every  deviation  from  virtue  is  approaching  to  vice. 

It  is  extrenriely  foolish  boasting  of  immoral  achievements. 

It  was  the  refusing  all  communion  with  paganism. 

Our  deepest  knowledge  is  knowing  ourselves. 

He  wilfully  neglects  the  obtaining  unspeakable  good. 

Retaliating  injuries  is  multiplying  offences. 

These  things  are  certain  :  there  is  no  denying  facts. 

Publicly  vindicating  error  is  openly  adopting  it. 

On  his  father  asking  him  who  it  was,  he  answered,  '  I.' 

Thus  shall  we  escape  being  defeated  and  ruined. 

Being  unjustly  liberal  is  ostentatious  pride. 

Wisdom  teaches  justly  appreciating  of  all  things. 

The  procuring  these  benefits,  was  a  gratuitous  act. 

Doing  good,  disinterested  good,  is  not  our  trade. 

Such  a  renouncing  the  world  is  a  pernicious  delusion. 

Freely  indulging  the  appetite  impairs  the  intellect. 

The  Acts  mention  Paul  preaching  of  Christ  at  Damascus, 

The  Acts  mention  Paul's  preaching  Christ  at  Damascus. 

The  Acts  mention  Paul  preaching  Christ  at  Damascus. 

Constantly  beholding  objects  prevents  our  admiring  them. 

We  purpose  taking  that  route  when  we  go. 

What  was  the  cause  of  the  young  woman  fainting  ? 

I  perceived  somebody's  creeping-through  the  fence. 

I  was  aware  of  them  intending  to  r.rrest  me. 

We  saw  some  mischievous  boys'  worrying  of  a  cat. 

To  pursue  fashion,  is  chasing  a  bird  on  the  wing. 

Being  very  positive,  is  no  real  proof  of  a  stable  mind. 

By  establishing  good  laws,  our  peace  is  secured. 

Distinctness  is  important  in  delivering  orations. 

He  guarantied  the  permission  we  demanded  being  granted^ 

For  the  easier  reading  the  numbers  in  the  table. 

liecovering  the  first  surprise,  however,  we  entered  boldly. 

EXERCISE  VII.— ADVERBS,  &c. 

Respect  is  lost  often  by  the  means  used  to  obtain  it» 
Such  were  the  views  of  the  then  ministry. 
Raillery  must  be  very  nice  to  not  offend. 
Ye  know  how  that  it  is  an  unlawful  thing. 
From  hence  I  infer  that  they  were  going  there. 
Quaint  sayings  are  long  remembered  often, 
I  cannot  tell  you  whether  this  is  the  fact  or  no, 

11 


242  INSTITUTES  OF  ENGLISH  QRAMMAE.     [PART  Z Si, 

Valleys  are  more  fertile  generally  than  mountains. 

A  qualification  of  usefulness  is  acquired  with  study. 

Frequent  transgression  makes  men  slaves  of  sin. 

Let  nothing  induce  you  ever  to  utter  a  falsehood. 

The  idle  are,  of  necessary  consequence,  ignorant. 

The  wind  came  about  so  as  we  could  make  no  way. 

Zealots  seldom  are  distinguished  by  charity. 

Study  is  as  necessary  and  even  more  so  than  instructioo. 

I  never  have,  and  never  shall  be  compensated. 

Humility  neither  seeks  the  first  place  or  the  last  word. 

He  has  never  told  me  nothing  more  of  the  matter. 

These  men  ranked  highly  among  the  nobility. 

Their  bodies  are  so  solid  and  hard,  as  you  need  not  fear. 

Of  her  brother's  political  life  previously  to  this  event. 

Attainments  made  easilv,  are  not  of  much  value  often. 

He  has  no  other  merit  but  that  of  a  compiler, 

Venus  appears  uncommonly  brightly  to-night. 

Men  cannot  be  forced  neither  into  or  out-of  true  faith. 

To  this  man  we  may  commit  safely  our  cause. 

One  crime  cannot  be  a  proper  remedy  to  another. 

Venus  is  not  quite  as  large  as  the  Earth. 

It  is  thinking  makes  what  we  read  our  own. 

Quagmires  have  smooth  sui'faces  commonly- 

He  was  so  much  oifended,  as  he  would  not  speak  to  msb 

I  have  put  my  words  in  thy  mouth. 

How  wilt  thou  put  thy  trust  on  Egypt  for  chariots? 

EXERCISE  VIII.— PROMISCUOUS. 

In  his  fathers  reign,  they  were  connected  and  joined, 

What  is  the  Earth  and  its  dimensions  ? 

He  is  a  great  deal  heavier  man  than  I. 

The  citizens  were  never  denied  the  privilege. 

Thankful  to  Heaven  that  thou  wert  left  behind. 

I  have  met  with  few  who  understood  men  equal  to  him. 

He  was  then  recently  returned  from  the  east  victorious. 

He  hoped  that  money  should  have  been  given  him. 

Laws  may,  and  frequently  are  made  against  drunkenness. 

He  appeared  in  an  human  shape. 

I  do  not  attempt  explaining  the  mysteries  of  religion. 

Ere  matter,  time,  or  place  were  known, 
Thou  sway'dst  these  spacious  realms  alone. 

One  of  the  wisest  persons  that  hath  been  among  theio. 

What  is  it  else  but  to  reject  all  authority  ? 

They  advocate  distinctions  unworthy  any  free  state. 

It  would  not,  and  ought  not,  be  felfe, 


CHAP.  VI.]  SYNTAX. — EXERCISES.  243 

Them  who  saw  the  disaster,  were  greatly  alarmed. 

He  knew  none  fitter  to  be  their  judge  but  himself. 

Record  the  names  of  every  one  present. 

We  doubt  not  but  we  will  satisfy  the  impartial. 

Bat  time  and  chance  happeneth  to  them  all. 

You  was  in  hopes  to  have  succeeded  to  the  inheritance. 

To  make  light  of  a  small  fault,  are  to  commit  a  greater. 

Judge  not  before  hearing  of  the  cause. 

Clear  articulation  is  requisite  in  publicly  speaking. 

God  is  the  avenger  of  all  breach  of  faith  and  injustice. 

I  had  a  letter  began,  and  nearly  half  wrote. 

It  is  better  being  suspected  than  being  guilty. 

Declare  the  past  and  present  state  of  things. 

To  insult  the  afflicted  are  impious  and  barbarous. 

Goodness,  and  not  greatness,  lead  to  happiness. 

It  is  pride  who  whispers,  '  What  will  they  think  of  me? 

In  judging  of  others,  charity  should  be  exercised. 

Zanies  are  willing  to  befool,  to  please  fools. 

Questions  are  easier  proposed  than  answered  rightly. 

He  forms  his  schemes  the  flood  of  vice  to  stem, 
But  preaching  Jesus  is  not  one  of  them. — J.  Taylor. 

EXERCISE  IX.— PROMISCUOUS. 
The  property  of  the  rebels  were  confiscated. 
He  was  extreme  covetous  in  all  his  dealings. 
There  were  no  less  than  thirty  islands. 
The  plot  was  the  easier  detected. 
Of  all  the  books  mine  has  the  fewer  blots. 
Who  does  the  house  belong  to  % 
Is  this  the  person  whom  you  say  was  present  ? 
Knowledge  is  only  to  be  acquired  by  application. 
Policy  often  prevails  upon  force. 
These  men  were  seen  enter  the  house  in  the  nisht. 
These  works  are  Cicero,  the  most  eloquent  of  men's, 
Thomas  has  bought  a  bay  large  horse. 
Your  gold  and  silver  is  cankered. 
Now  abideth  faith,  hope,  and  charity. 
And,  him  destroyed,  all  this  will  follow. 
There  is  no  need  for  your  assistance. 
To  whom  our  fathers  would  not  obey. 
Where  can  we  find  such  an  one  as  this  1 
Tliey  sat  out  early  on  their  journey. 
Philosophers  have  often  mistook  the  source  of  happiness. 
The  books  are  as  old,  and  perhaps  older,  than  tradition. 
This  chapter  is  divided  in  sections. 


244  INSTITUTES   OF   ENGLISH   GRAMMAR.    [PART  IH 

I  shall  treat  you  as  I  have  them. 

A  prophet  mightier  than  him. 

Neither  he  or  his  brother  is  capable  of  it. 

Richelieu  profited  of  every  circumstance. 

What  was  the  cause  of  the  girl  screaming  1 

Let  him  and  I  have  half  of  them. 

I  wrote  to,  and  cautioned  the  captain  against  it. 

Nothing  is  more  lovelier  than  virtue. 

He  that  is  diligent,  you  should  commend. 

They  ride  fiister  than  us. 

Which  of  them  grammars  do  you  like  best  ? 

Neither  of  these  are  the  meaning  intended. 

Did  you  understand  who  I  was  speaking  of? 

Whosoever  of  you  will  be  chiefest,  shall  be  servant  of  alL 

Remember  what  thou  wert,  and  be  humble. 
Was  I  deceived  1  or  did  a  sable  cloud 
Turn  forth  her  silver  lining  on  the  night  1 — Milton. 

EXERCISE  X.— PROMISCUOUS. 

Changed  to  a  worser  shape  thou  canst  not  be. 

For  him  through  hostile  camps  I  bend  my  way, 
For  him  thus  prostrate  at  thy  feet  I  lay. — Pope. 
Thus  oft  by  mariners  are  shown 
Earl  Godwin's  castles  overflown. — Swift. 

No  civil  broils  have,  since  his  death,  arose. 

Nor  thou,  that  flings  me  floundering  from  thy  back. 

Who  should  I  see  but  the  doctor  ! 

That  which  once  was  thee. 

To  wish  him  wrestle  with  affection. 

So  much  she  fears  for  William's  life, 

That  Mary's  fate  she  dare  not  mourn. — Prior. 

Phalaris,  who  was  so  much  older  than  her. 

They  would  have  given  him  such  satisfaction  in  other  parti- 
culars, as  a  full  and  happy  peace  must  have  ensued. 

The  woman  which  we  saw,  is  very  amiable. 

The  three  first  classes  have  read. 

An  union  in  that  which  is  permanent. 

Among  every  class  of  people  self  interest  prevails. 

Such  conduct  is  a  disgrace  of  their  profession. 

His  education  has  been  neglected  much. 

There  is  no  other  bridge  but  the  one  we  saw. 

He  went  and  laid  down  to  sleep. 

Whom  do  men  say  that  I  am  1 

Take  to  you  handfuls  of  ashes  of  the  furnace,  and  let  Moses 
sprinkle  it  towards  the  heaven  in  the  sight  of  Pharaoh. 


CUAT.  VI.]  SYNTAX. — EXEllCISES.  24o 

In  culogizins;  of  the  dead,  he  slandered  the  living. 

If  a  dog  both  give  the  first  turn  and  the  last,  he  shall  win. 

Neither  the  virtuous  or  the  vicious  are  exempt  from  trials. 

He  spoke  as  if  he  was  in  a  passion. 

Let  him  take  heed  lest  he  fails. 

We  have  all  swerved  out-of  the  path  of  duty. 

I  cannot  agree  with  him  neither. 

He  both  wrote  sermons  and  plays. 

If  a  man  say,  '  I  love  God,'  and  hateth  his  brother,  he  is  a  liax 

He  has  long  ago  forsaken  that  party. 

It  was  proved  to  be  her  that  opened  the  letter. 

Is  not  this  the  same  man  whom  we  met  before  ? 

I  forego  my  claim  for  peace's  sake. 

For  thou  art  a  girl  as  much  brighter  than  her, 
As  she  was  a  poet  sublimer  than  me. — Prior, 

EXERCISE  XI.— PROMISCUOUS. 

There  remains  two  points  to  be  settled. 

I  could  not  avoid  frequently  using  it. 

The  Athenians  Avcre  naturally  obliging  and  agreeable;  they 
were  cheerful  among  each  other,  and  humane  to  their  infe- 
riors.—  Goldsmith. 

I  hope  it  is  not  me  thou  art  displeased  with. 

I  never  before  saw  such  large  trees. 

My  paper  is  Ulysses  his  bow,  in  which  every  man  of  wit  and 
learning  may  try  his  strength. — Addison. 
'Twas  thee,  whom  once  Stagyra's  grove 
Oft  with  her  sage  allur'd  to  rove. — Scott  of  AmivelL 

I  could  not  observe  by  what  gradations  other  men  proceeded 
in  their  acquainting  themselves  with  truth. — Locke. 

I  will  show  you  the  way  how  it  is  done. 

Imprinting,  if  it  signify  any  thing,  is  nothing  else  but  the  mak- 
ing certain  truths  to  be  perceived. — Locke. 

This  arose  from  the  young  man  associating  with  bad  people. 

Him  that  never  thinks,  never  can  be  wise. 

It  was  John's  the  Baptist  head  that  was  cut  off. 

The  Jews  are  Abraham's,  Isaac's,  and  Jacob's  posterity. 

Two  architects  were  once  candidates  for  the  building  a  certain 
temple  at  Athens. 

This  treatise  is  extreme  elaborate. 

Them  descending,  the  ladder  fell. 

The  scaling  ladder  of  sugared  words  are  set  against  them. 

One  or  both  was  there. 

What  sort  of  an  animal  is  that  ? 

21* 


24(3  INSTITUTES    OF    ENGLISH   GRAMMAR.     [PART  III. 

These  things  should  be  never  separated. 

His  excuse  was  admitted  of  by  his  master. 

It  is  not  me  that  he  is  engaged  with. 

1  intended  to  have  rewarded  him  according  to  his  merits. 

They  would  become  sooner  proficients  in  Latin. 

There  is  many  different  opinions  concerning  it. 

There  are  many  in  town  richer  than  her. 

Let  you  and  I  be  as  little  at  variance  as  possible. 

A  coalman,  by  waking  of  one  of  these  gentlemen,  saved  him 

from  ten  years  imprisonment. 
If  a  man's  temper  was  at  his  own  disposal,  he  would  not  choose 

to  be  of  either  of  these  parties. 

The  birds  their  notes  renew,  and  bleating  herds 
Attest  their  joy,  that  hill  and  valley  rings. — Milton. 

EXERCISE  XII.— PROMISCUOUS. 

But  we  of  the  nations  beg  leave  to  differ  with  them. 
This  is  so  easy  and  trivial,  as  it  is  a  shame  to  mention  it. 
You  was  once  quite  blind;  you  neither  saw  your  disease  or 
your  remedy. 

Fluttering  his  pennons  vain,  plumb  down  he  drops 

Ten  thousand  fathom  deep. — Milton. 
The  properties  of  the  mirror  depends  on  reflected  light.. 
Was  you  present  at  the  last  meeting  % 
Hence  has  arisen  much  stiffness  and  affectation. 
The  nation  are  powerful  both  by  sea  and  land. 
Those  set  of  books  was  a  valuable  present. 
The  box  contained  forty  piece  of  muslin. 
She  is  much  the  taller  of  the  three. 
They  are  both  remarkable  tall  men. 

A  mans  manners  may  be  pleasing,  whose  morals  are  bad. 
True  politeness  has  it's  seat  in  the  heart. 
He  presented  him  a  humble  petition. 
I  do  not  intend  to  turn  a  critic  on  this  occasion. 
At  first  sight  we  took  it  to  be  they. 
The  certificate  was  wrote  on  parchment. 
I  have  often  swam  across  the  river. 
.  I  have  written  four  long  letters  yesterday, 
I  expected  to  have  seen  you  last  week,  but  I  was  disappointed. 
We  are  besat  by  dangers  on  all  sides. 
My  father  and  him  were  very  intimate. 
Unless  he  acts  prudently,  he  will  not  succeed. 
It  was  no  sooner  said  but  done. 
Let  neither  partiality  or  prejudice  appear. 


CHAP,  VI.]  SYNTAX. — EXERCISES.  247 

The  obligation  was  ceased  long  before. 

How  exquisitely  is  this  all  performed  in  Greek ! 

Who,  when  they  came  to  Mount  Ephraim,  to  the  house  of 

Micah,  they  lodged  there. 
I  prevailed  with  your  father  to  consent. 
Always  act  as  justice  and  honour  requires. 
Them  that  transgress  the  rules,  will  be  punished. 
With  him  is  wisdom  and  strength.. 
My  conductor  answered,  that  it  was  him. 

Be  thou,  O  lovely  isle !  forever  true 

To  him  who  more  than  faithful  was  to  you. — SouthwicJc. 

The  joys  of  love,  are  they  not  doubly  thine, 

Ye  poor !  whose  health,  whose  spirits  ne'er  decline  ? — /</, 

EXERCISE  XIII.— PROMISCUOUS. 

Having  once  suffered  the  disgrace,  it  is  felt  no  longer. 

The  meanness  or  the  sin  will  scarce  be  dissuasives. 

Both  temper  and  distemper  consists  of  contraries. 

Which  is  the  cause,  the  writer  or  the  reader's  vanity  ? 

The  commission  of  a  generalissimo  was  also  given  him. 

The  queen's  kindred  is  styled  gentlefolks. 

They  agree  as  to  the  fact,  but  differ  in  assigning  of  reasons. 

Their  love,  and  their  hatred,  and  their  envy,  is  now  perished. 

The  inquiry  is  worthy  the  attention  of  every  scholar. 

Young  twigs  are  easier  bent  than  boughs. 

It  is  not  improbable  but  there  are  more  attractive  powers. 

By  this  means  an  universal  ferment  was  excited. 

Who  were  utterly  unable  to  pronounce  some  letters,  and  others 

very  indistinctly. — Sheridan. 
All  vessels  on  board  of  which  any  person  has  been  sick  or 

died,  perform  quarantine. 
Serverus  forbid  his  subjects  to  change  the5r  religion  for  that 

of  the  Christian  or  Jewish. — Jones's  Ch.  Hist. 
Magnus,  with  four  thousand  of  his  suj^posed  accomplices,  were 

put  to  death  without  a  trial. — Id, 
Art  not  thou  that  Egyptian  which  before  these  days  madest  an 

uproar,  and  leddest  out  into  the  wilderness  four  thousand 

men  that  were  murderers  ? — Acts,  xxiii,  38. 
Attempting  to  deceive  children  into  instruction  of  this  kind, 

is  only  deceiving  ourselves. —  Goldstnitk. 
There  came  a  woman,  having  an  alabaster  box  of  ointment 

of  spikenard,  very  precious ;    and  she  brake  the  box  and 

poured  it  on  his  head. — Ifark,  xiv,  S. 
My  essays,  of  all  my  other  works,  are  the  most  current 


248  INSTITUTES  OF   ENGLISH   GRAMMAR.     [PART  III. 

"We  would  suggest  the  importance  of  every  member,  individu- 
ally, using  his  influence. 

Thy  sumptuous  buildings,  and  thy  wife's  attire, 
Hath  cost  a  mass  of  public  treasure. — Shakspeare. 

EXERCISE  XIV.— PROMISCUOUS. 

This  people  who  knoweth  not  the  law,  are  cursed. 

The  people  shall  be  forgiven  their  iniquity. — Bible. 

Having  been  denied  the  favours  which  they  were  promised. 
Hold,  Rosaline,  this  favour  thou  shalt  wear; 
Hold,  take  you  this,  my  sweet,  and  give  me  thme. 

Rely  not  on  any  man's  fidelity,  who  is  unfaithful  to  God. 

The  rules  are  full  as  concise,  and  more  clear  than  before. 

For  they  knew  all  that  his  father  was  a  Greek.— ^c^s. 

Thrice  was  Cajsar  offered  the  crown, 

Eor  a  mine  undiscovered,  neither  the  owner  of  the  ground,  or 
any  body  else,  are  ever  the  richer. 

Death  may  be  sudden  to  him,  though  it  comes  by  never  so 
slow  degrees. 

A  brute  or  a  man  are  an  other  thing  when  they  are  alive,  from 
what  they  are  when  dead. — Hale. 

I  have  known  the  having  confessed  inability,  become  the  occa- 
sion of  confirmed  impotence. — Taylor. 

I  am  exceeding  joyful  in  all  our  tribulation.— 2  Cor.,  vii,  4. 

If  so  much  power,  wisdom,  goodness,  and  magnificence,  is  dis- 
played in  tlie  material  creation,  which  is  the  least  consider- 
able part  of  the  universe ;  how  great,  how  wise,  how  good 
must  he  be,  who  made  and  governs  the  whole ! 

A  good  poet  no  sooner  communicates  his  works,  but  it  is  ini- 
agined  he  is  a  vain  young  creature,  given  up  to  the  ambi- 
tion of  fame. — Po/;e. 

Tliis  was  a  tax  upon  himself  for  the  not  executing  the  laws. 

0  my  people,  that  dwellest  in  Zion  !  be  not  afraid. — Bible. 

As  rushing  out-of  doors,  to  be  resolved. 
If  Brutus  so  unkindly  knock'd  or  no, — Shakspeare. 
His  wrath,  which  one  day  will  destroy  ye  both. — Milton, 
I  know  thee  not — nor  ever  saw,  till  now. 
Sight  more  detestable  than  him  and  thee. — Id. 

1  The  season  when  to  come,  and  when  to  go. 

To  ging,  or  cease  to  sing,  we  never  know. — Pope. 


CHAP.  I.]        rROSODY.— PUNCTUATION,— COMMA.  249 


PART     lY. 

PROSODY. 

Prosody  treats  of  punctuation,  utterance,  figures,  and 
versification. 


CHAPTEE  I.— PUNCTUATION. 

Punctuation  is  the  art  of  dividing  composition,  by 
points,  or  stops,  for  the  purpose  of  showing  more  clearly 
the  sense  and  relation  of  the  words,  and  of  noting  the 
different  pauses  and  inflections  required  in  reading. 

The  following  are  the  principal  points,  or  marks ;  the 
Comma  [,],  the  Semicolon  [;],  the  Colon  [:],  the 
Period  [.],  the  Dash  [  — ],  the  Eroteme,  or  Note  of  In- 
terrogation [?  ],  the  Ecphoneme,  or  Note  of  Exclamation 
[!],  and  the  Carves,  or  Marks  of  Parenthesis  [()]. 

Obs. — The  pauses  that  are  made  in  the  natural  flow  of  speech,  have,  in 
reality,  no  denuite  and  invariable  proportions.  Children  are  often  told  to 
pause  at  a  connna  while  they  might  count  one  ;  at  a  semicolon,  one,  two;  at 
a  colon,  one,  two,  three  ;  at  a  period,  one,  two,  three,  four.  This  may  be  of 
Bome  use,  as  teaching  them  to  observe  their  stops  that  they  may  catch  the 
sense;  but  the  standard  itself  is  variable,  and  so  are  the  times  which  good 
sense  gives  to  the  points.  As  a  final  stop,  the  period  is  immeasurable.  Tlie 
following  general  direction  is  as  good  as  any  that  can  be  given. 

The  Comma  denotes  the  shortest  pause;  the  Semi- 
colon, a  pause  double  that  of  the  comma ;  the  Colon,  a 
pause  double  that  of  the  semicolon  ;  and  the  Period,  or 
Full  Stop,  a  pause  double  that  of  the  colon.  The 
pauses  required  by  the  other  marks,  vary  according  to 
the  structure  of  the  sentence,  and  their  place  in.  it.  They 
may  be  equal  to  any  of  the  foregoing. 

SECTION   I. — OF   THE    COMMA. 

The  Comma  is  used  to  separate  those  parts  of  a  sen- 
tence, which  are  so  nearly  connected  in  sense,  as  to  be 
only  one  degree  removed  from  that  close  connexion 
which  admits  no  points 


250  INSTITUTES   OF  ENGLISH   GRAMMAK.     [PARTIT. 

Rule  I. — Simple  Sentences. 

A  simple  sentence  does  not,  in  general,  admit  the  comma', 
as,  "  Tlie  weakest  reasoners  are  the  most  positive." —  W.  Allen. 

Exception. — When  the  nominative  in  a  long  simple  sentence 
is  accompanied  by  inseparable  adjuncts,  a  comma  should  be 
placed  before  the  verb  ;  as,  "  The  assemblage  of  these  vast 
bodies,  is  divided  into  different  systems." 

Rule  II. — Simple  Members. 

The  simple  members  of  a  compound  sentence,  -whether  suc- 
cessive or  involved,  elliptical  or  complete,  are  generally  di- 
vided by  the  comma ;  as, 

1.  "  He  speaks  eloquently,  and  he  acts  wisely." 

2.  "  The  man,  when  he  saw  this,  departed." 

3.  "  It  may,  and  it  often  does  happen." 

4.  "  That  life  is  long,  which  answers  life's  great  end." 

5.  "  As  thy  days,  so  shall  thy  strength  be." 

Exception  1. — When  a  relative  immediately  follows  its  an- 
tecedent, and  is  taken  in  a  restrictive  sense,  the  comma  should 
not  be  introduced  before  it;  as,  "The  things  which  are  seen, 
are  temporal ;  but  the  things  which  are  not  secn^  are  eternal." 
—2  Cor.,  iv,  18. 

Exception  2. — W^hen  the  simple  members  are  short,  and 
closely  connected  by  a  conjunction  or  a  conjunctive  adverb,  the 
comma  is  generally  omitted ;  as,  "  Infamy  is  worse  than  death." 
• — "  Let  him  tell  me  whether  the  number  of  the  stars  be  even 
or  odd." 

Rule  III. — More  than  Two  Words. 

When  more  than  two  words  or  terms  are  connected  in  the 
same  construction,  by  conjunctions  expressed  or  imderstood, 
the  comma  should  be  inserted  after  every  one  of  them  but  the 
last ;  and  if  they  are  nominatives  before  a  verb,  the  comma 
should  follow  the  last  also  :  as, 

1.  "Who,  to  the  enraptur'd  heart,  and  ear,  and  eye, 

Teach  beauty,  virtue,  truth,  and  love,  and  melody." 

2.  «  Ah !  what  avails     ******     • 

All  that  art,  fortune,  enterprise,  can  bring. 

If  envy,  scorn,  remorse,  or  pride,  the  bosom  wring  1" 

3.  "Women  are  soft,  mild,  pitiful,  and  flexible; 

Thou,  stern,  obdurate,  flinty,  rough,  remorseless." 

4.  "She  plans,  provides,  expatiates,  triumphs  there." 

Obs. — Two  or  more  words  arc  in  the  same  construction,  when  they  liave  a 
common  depeudeuee  on  some  other  term,  and  are  parsed  aUke. 


CHAP.  1.]        PROSODY.— PUNCTUATION.— COMMA.  251 

Rule  IV. — Only  Two  Words. 

When  only  two  words  or  terms  are  connected  by  a  con- 
junction,  they  should  not  be  separated  by  the  comma;  as, 
"Despair  and  anguish  fled  the  struggling  soul." — Ooldsmith. 

Exception  1. — When  the  two  words  connected  have  several 
adjuncts,  or  when  one  of  them  has  an  adjunct  that  relates  not 
to  both,  the  comma  is  inserted ;  as,  "  Honesty  in  his  dealings, 
and  attention  to  his  business,  procured  him  both  esteem  and 
•wealth." — "  Who  is  applied  to  persons,  or  things  personified.'" 
— Bullions. 

Exception  2. — When  the  two  words  connected  are  emphat* 
ically  distinguished,  the  comma  is  inserted ;  as, 

"  Liberal,  not  lavish,  is  kind  Nature's  hand." — Beattie. 

" 'Tis  certain  he  could  write,  and  cipher  too." — Ooldsmith. 

Exception  3. — When  there  is  merely  an  alternative  of  words, 

the  comma  is  inserted ;  as,  "  We  saw  a  large  opening,  or  inlet." 

Exception  4. — When    the  conjunction    is  understood,  the 

comma  is  inserted  ;  as, 

"  She  thought  the  isle  that  gave  her  birth, 
The  sweetest,  wildest  land  on  earth." — Hogg. 

Rule  V. — Words  in  Pairs. 

When  successive  words  are  joined  in  pairs  by  conjunctions, 
they  should  be  separated  in  pairs  by  the  comma ;  as,  "  Interest 
and  ambition,  honour  and  shame,  friendship  and  enmity,  grat- 
itude and  revenge,  are  the  prime  movers  in  public  transac- 
tions."—  W.  Allen. 

Rule  VI. — Words  put  Absolute. 

Nouns  or  pronouns  put  absolute,  should,  with  their  adjuncts, 
be  set  off  by  the  comma;  as,  "The  prince,  his  father  being 
dead,  succeeded." — '■^This  done,  we  parted." — '■'•Zacchcus,  make 
haste  and  come  down." — '•'■His  prcetorship  in  Sicily,  what  did 
it  produce"?" — Cicero. 

Rule  VII. — Words  in  Apposition. 

Words  put  in  apposition,  (especially  if  they  have  adjuncts,) 
are  generally  set  otF  by  the  comma ;  as,  "  He  that  now  calls 
upon  thee,  is  Theodore,  the  hermit  of  Tenerijfey — Johnson. 

Exception  1. — When  several  words,  in  their  common  order, 
are  used  as  one  compound  name,  the.  comma  is  not  inserted; 
as,  "Samuel  Johnson," — "Publius  Gavins  Cosanus." 

Exception  2. — When  a  common  and  a  proper  name  are 
closely  united,  the  comma  is  not  inserted;  as,  "The  brook 


252  INSTITUTES   OF  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR.     [PART  IV. 

Kidron," — "The  river  Don," — "The  empress  Catharine," — ■ 
"  Paul  the  apostle." 

Exception  3. — When  a  pronoun  is  added  to  another  word 
merely  for  emphasis  and  distinction,  the  comma  is  not  inserted; 
as,  "  Ye  men  of  Athens," — "  I  myself," — "  Thou  flaming  min- 
ister,"— "  You  princes." 

Exception  4.— When  a  name  acquired  by  some  action  or  re- 
lation, is  put  in  apposition  with  a  preceding  noun  or  pronoun, 
the  comma  is  not  inserted:  as,  "I  made  the  ground  my  bed  •''' 
— "To  make  him  king ;''' — "  Whom  they  revered  as  God;'''' — 
"  With  modesty  thy  guide.''' — Fope. 

Rule  YIII. — Adjectives. 

Adjectives,  when  something  depends  on  them,  or  when  they 
have  the  import  of  a  dependent  clause,  should,  with  their  ad- 
juncts, be  set  off  by  the  comma ;  as, 

1. "  Among  the  roots 

Of  hazel,  pendent  o'er  the  plaintive  stream, 

They  frame  the  first  foundation  of  their  domes." — Thorn. 

2. "  Up  springs  the  larlv, 

Shrill-voicd  and  loud,  the  messenger  of  morn." — Id. 

Exception. — When  an  adjective  immediately  follows  its 
noun,  and  is  taken  in  a  restrictive  sense,  the  comma  should 
not  be  used  before  it ;  as, 

"  On  the  coast  averse  from  entrance.^'' — Milton. 

Rule  IX. — Finite  Yerbs. 

Where  a  finite  verb  is  understood,  a  comma  is  generally 
required :  as,  "  From  law  arises  security ;  fi-om  security, 
curiosity  ;  from  curiosity,  knowledge." — Murray. 

Rule  X. — Infinitives. 

The  infinitive  mood,  when  it  follows  a  verb  from  which  it 
must  be  separated,  or  when  it  depends  on  something  remote 
or  understood,  is  generally,  with  its  adjuncts,  set  off  by  the 
comma;  as,  "His  delight  was,  to  assist  the  distressed.''^ — "Jb 
conclude,  1  was  reduced  to  beggary." 

"  The  Governor  of  all — has  interposed. 
Not  seldom,  his  avenging  arm,  to  smite 
The  injurious  trampler  upon  nature's  law." — Cowper. 

Rule  XI. — Participles. 

Participles,  when  something  depends  on  them,  when  they 
have  the  import  of  a  dependent  clause,  or  when  they  relate  to 


CHAP.  I.]        PROSODY.— PUNCTUATION.— COMMA.  253 

something  understood,  should,  with  their  adjuncts,  be  set  off 
by  the  comma ;  as, 

1.  "Young  Edwin,  lighted  by  the  evening  star, 

Ling''ring  and  list'ning,  wander'd  down  the  vale." — JBeattie, 

2.  "  United,  we  stand  ;   divided,  we  fiill," 

3.  '•'■  Proferly  speaking,  there  is  no  such  thing  as  chance." 
Exception. — When  a  participle  immediately  follows  its  nounj 

and  is  taken  in  a  restrictive  sense,  the  comma  should  not  be 
used  before  it ;  as, 

"  A  man  renowned  for  repartee. 
Will  seldom  scruple  to  make  free 
W^ith  friendship's  finest  feeling." — Cowper. 

Rule  XII. — Adverbs. 

Adverbs,  when  they  break  the  connexion  of  a  simple  sen* 
tence,  or  when  they  have  not  a  close  dependence  on  some  par- 
ticular word  in  the  context,  should  be  set  off  by  the  comma ; 
as,  "  We  must  not,  however,  confound  this  gentleness  with  the 
artificial  courtesy  of  the  world." — '■'■Besides,  the  mind  must  be 
employed." — Gilpin.  '■'•Most  unquestionably,  no  fraud  waa 
equal  to  all  this." — Lyttelton. 

Rule  XIII. — Conjunctions. 

Conjunctions,  when  they  are  separated  from  the  principal 
clause  that  depends  on  them,  or  when  they  introduce  an  exam- 
ple, are  generally  set  oft'  by  the  comma ;  as,  '■'But,  by  a  timely 
call  upon  Religion,  the  force  of  Habit  was  eluded." — Johnson. 

Rule  XIV. — Prepositions. 

Prepositions  and  their  objects,  when  they  break  the  con- 
nexion of  a  simple  sentence,  or  when  they  do  not  closely  fol- 
low the  words  on  which  they  depend,  are  generally  set  off  by 
the  comma ;  as,  "  Fashion  is,  for  the  most  part,  nothing  but  the 
ostentation  of  riches." — "■By  reading,\Ye  add  the  experience  of 
others  to  our  own." 

Rule  XV. — Interjections. 

Interjections  are  sometimes  set  off  by  the  comma ;  as,  "For, 
lo,  I  will  call  all  the  families  of  the  kingdoms  of  the  north." — 
Jeremiah,  i,  15. 

Rule  XVI. — Words  Repeated. 

A  word  emphatically  repeated,  is  generally  set  off  by  the 
comma;  as,  "Happy,  happy,  happy  pair  !" — Dryden.  "Ah! 
no,  no,  no." — Id. 

22 


254  INSTITUTES   OF  ENGLISH  GKAMMAR.     [PART  IV. 

Rule  XVII. — Dependent  Quotations. 

A  quotation  or  observation,  when  it  is  introduced  by  a  verb, 
(as,  say,  reply,  and  the  like,)  is  generally  separated  from  the 
rest  of  the  sentence  by  the  comma ;  as,  " '  The  book  ot  nature,' 
said  he,  '  is  open  before  thee.'  " — "  I  say  unto  all.  Watch." 

SECTION  II. — OF   THE   SEMICOLON. 

The  Semicolon  is  used  to  separate  those  parts  of  a 
compound  sentence,  which  are  neither  so  closely  con- 
nected as  those  which  are  distinguished  by  the  comma, 
nor  so  little  dependent  as  those  which  require  the  colon. 

Rule  I. — Compound  Members. 

AVhen  several  compound  members,  some  or  all  of  which 
require  the  comma,  are  constructed  into  a  period,  they  are 
generally  separated  by  the  semicolon  :  as,  "  In  the  regions  in- 
habited by  angelic  natures,  unmingled  felicity  forever  blooms  ; 
joy  flows  there  with  a  perpetual  and  abundant  stream,  nor 
needs  any  mound  to  check  its  course." — Carter. 

Rule  II. — Simple  Members. 

When  several  simple  members,  each  of  which  is  complete 
in  sense,  are  constructed  into  a  period  ;  if  they  require  a  pause 
greater  than  that  of  the  comma,  they  are  usually  separated  by 
the  semicolon :  as,  "  Straws  swim  upon  the  surface ;  but  pearls 
lie  at  the  bottom." — Murray. 

"  A  longer  care  man's  helpless  kind  demands ; 
That  longer  care  contracts  more  lasting  bands." — Pope. 

Rule  III. — Apposition,  &c. 

Words  in  apposition,  in  disjunct  pairs,  or  in  any  other  con- 
struction, if  they  require  a  pause  greater  than  that  of  the  com- 
ma, and  less  than  that  of  the  colon,  may  be  separated  by  the 
semicolon :  as,  "  There  are  five  moods ;  the  infinitive,  the  in- 
dicative, the  potential,  the  subjunctive,  and  the  imperative." 

SECTION   III. — OF   THE   COLON. 

The  Colon  is  used  to  separate  those  parts  of  a  compound 
sentence,  which  are  neither  so  closely  connected  as  those 
which  are  distinguished  by  the  semicolon,  nor  so  little 
dependent  as  those  which  require  the  period. 

Rule  I. — Additional  Remarks. 

When  the  preceding  clause  is  complete  in  itself,  but  is  fol- 
lowed by  some  additional  remark  or  illustration,  especially  if 


CHAP.  I.]      mOSODY.— PUNCTUATION.— rERIOD,  255 

no  conjunction  is  used,  the  colon  is  generally  and  properly  in- 
serted :  as,  "  Avoid  evil  doers :  in  such  society  an  honest  man 
may  become  ashamed  of  himself." — "  See  that  moth  fluttering 
incessantly  round  the  candle :  man  of  pleasure,  behold  thy 
image . ' ' — Karnes. 

Rule  II. — Greater  Pauses. 

When  the  semicolon  has  been  introduced,  and  a  still  greater 
pause  is  required  within  the  period,  the  colon  should  be  em- 
ployed :  as,  "  Princes  have  courtiers,  and  merchants  have  part- 
ners ;  the  voluptuous  have  companions,  and  the  wicked  have 
accomplices :  none  but  the  virtuous  can  have  friends." 

Rule  III. — Independent  Quotations. 

A  quotation  introduced  without  dependence  on  a  verb  or  a 
conjunction,  is  generally  preceded  by  the  colon ;  as,  "  In  his 
last  moments  he  uttered  these  words :  ''I fall  a  sacrifice  to  sloth 
and  luxury.^ " 

SECTION   IV. — OF  THE   PERIOD. 

The  Period,  or  Full  Stop,  is  used  to  mark  an  entire 
and  independent  sentence,  whether  simple  or  compound. 

Rule  I. — Distinct  Sentences. 

When  a  sentence  is  complete  in  respect  to  sense,  and  inde- 
pendent in  respect  to  construction,  it  should  be  marked  with 
the  period  :  as,  "Every  deviation  from  truth  is  criminal.  Ab- 
hor a  falsehood.  Let  your  words  be  ingenuous.  Sincerity 
possesses  the  most  powerful  charm." 

Rule  II. — Allied  Sentences. 

The  period  is  often  employed  between  two  sentences  which 
have  a  general  connexion,  expressed  by  a  personal  pronoun,  a 
conjunction,  or  a  conjunctive  adverb;  as,  "The  selfish  man. 
languishes  in  his  narrow  circle  of  pleasures.  Tkey  are  con- 
fined to  what  affects  his  own  interests.  He  is  obliged  to  repeat 
the  same  gratifications,  till  they  become  insipid.  But  the  man 
of  virtuous  sensibility  moves  in  a  wider  sphere  of  felicity." — 
Blair. 

Rule  III. — Abbreviations. 

The  period  is  generally  used  after  abbreviations,  and  very 
often  to  the  exclusion  of  other  points ;  but,  as  in  this  case  it  is 
not  a  constant  sign  of  pause,  other  points  may  properly  follow 
it,  if  the  words  written  in  full  would  demand  them  :  as,  A.  D. 
for  Anno  Domini ; — Pro  tem,  for  j^fo  tempore  ; — Ult.  for  ul- 


256  INSTITUTES  OF  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR.      [PAET  IT. 

timo  ; — 1.  e.  for  id  est,  that  is  ; — Add.,  Spect.,  No.  285;  i.  e., 
Addison,  hi  the  Spectator,  Number  2S5fk. 
"  Consult  the  statute  ;  '  quart.'  I  think,  it  is, 
'Edwardi  sext,,'  or  '  prim,  et  quint.  Eliz.' " — Pope,  p.  399. 

SECTION   V. — OF   THE   DASH. 

The  Dash  is  mostly  used  to  denote  an  unexpected  or 
emphatic  pause  of  variable  length  ;  but  sometimes  it  is 
a  sign  of  faltering ;  sometimes,  of  omission :  if  set  after 
an  other  sign  of  pause,  it  usually  lengthens  the  interval. 

Rule  I. — Abrupt  Pauses. 
A  sudden  interruption  or  transition  should  be  marked  with 
the  dash  ;  as,  " '  I  must  inquire  into  the  affair,  and  if — '  And 
i/r  interrupted  the  farmer." 

"  Here  lies  the  great — flxlse  marble,  where  ? 
Nothing  but  sordid  dust  lies  here." — Young. 

Rule  II. — Emphatic  Pauses. 
To  mark  a  considerable  pause,  greater  than  the  structure  of 
the  sentence  or  the  points  inserted,  would  seem  to  require,  the 
dash  may  be  employed ;   as, 

1.  "  And  now  they  part — to  meet  no  more." 

2.  "Revere  thyself; — and  yet  thyself  despise." 

3.  "  Behold  the  picture  !— Is  it  like  ? — Like  whom  ?" 

Rule  III. — Faulty  Dashes. 

Dashes  needlessly  inserted,  or  substituted  for  other  stops 
more  definite,  are  in  general  to  be  treated  as  errors  in  punc- 
tuation. Example :  "  — You  shall  go  home  directly,  LeFevre, 
said  my  uncle  Toby,  to  my  house, — and  we  '11  send  for  a  doc- 
tor to  see  what 's  the  matter, — and  we  '11  have  an  apothecary, 
— and  the  corporal  shall  be  your  nurse  ; — and  I  '11  be  your 
servant,  Le  Fevre." — Sterne  :  Enfield's  Speaker,  p.  306.  Better 
thus :  "  '  You  shall  go  home  du'ectly,  Le  Fevre,'  said  my  uncle 
Toby, '  to  my  house;  and  we  '11  send  for  a  doctor  to  see  what's 
the  matter ;  and  we  '11  have  an  apothecaiy  ;  and  the  corporal 
shall  be  your  nurse :  and  I  '11  be  your  servant,  Le  Fevre.' " 

SECTION   TI. — OF  THE   EROTEME. 

The  Eroteme,  or  ISTote  of  Interrogation,  is  used  to 
designate  a  question. 

Rule  I. — Questions  Direct. 
Questions  expressed  directly  as  such,  if  finished,  should  al- 
ways be  followed  by  the  note  of  interrogation ;  as, 


CHAP.  I.]    PROSODY.— PUNCTUATION.— ECPHONEME.       257 

"In  life,  can  love  be  bought  with  gold? 
Are  friendship's  pleasures  to  be  sold  ?" — Johnson. 

Rule  II. — Questions  United. 

When  two  or  more  questions  are  united  in  one  compound 
sentence,  the  comma  or  semicolon  is  sometimes  placed  between 
them,  and  the  note  of  interrogation,  after  the  last  only  ;  as, 
"  Truths  would  you  teach,  or  save  a  sinking  land  ? 
All  fear,  none  aid  you,  and  few  understand." — Pope. 

Rule  III. — Questions  Indirect. 
"When  a  question  is  mentioned,  but  not  put  directly  as  a 
question,  it  loses  both  the  quality  and  the  sign  of  interrogation ; 
as,  "  The  Cyprians  asked  me  why  I  wepty — Murray. 

SECTION  VII. — OF  THE   ECPHONEME. 

The  Ecpboneme,  or  Note  of  Exclamation,  is  used  to 
denote  a  pause  with  some  strong  or  sudden  emotion  of 
the  mind ;  and,  as  a  sign  of  great  wonder,  it  may  be 

repeated ! ! ! 

Rule  I. — Interjections,  &c. 

Interjections,  and  other  expressions  of  great  emotion,  are 
generally  fallowed  by  the  note  of  exclamation  ;  as, 

"  O  !  let  mc  listen  to  the  words  of  life  !" — Thomson. 

Rule  II. — Invocations. 

After  an  earnest  address  or  solemn  invocation,  the  note  of 

exclamation   is  usually  preferred    to    any   other  point ;     as, 

"Whereupon,  O  king  Agrippa !  I  was  not  disobedient  unto 

the  heavenly  vision." — Acts,  xxvi,  19. 

Rule  III. — Exclamatory  Questions. 
Words  uttered  with  vehemence  in  the  form  of  a  question,  but 
without  reference  to  an  answer,  should  be  followed  by  the  note 
of  exclamation  ;  as,  "  How  madly  have  I  talked  !" —  Young. 

SECTION   VIII. — OF   THE   CURVES. 

The  Curves,  or  Marks  of  Parenthesis,  are  used  to  dis- 
tinguish a  clause  or  hint  that  is  hastily  thrown  in  between 
the  parts  of  a  sentence  to  which  it  does  not  properly  be- 
long; as, 

"To  others  do  (the  law  is  not  severe) 
What  to  thyself  thou  wishest  to  be  done." — Beattie. 

Obs. — The  incidental  clause  should  be  littered  in  a  lower  tone,  and  faster 
than  the  principal  sentence.  It  always  requires  a  pause  as  great  as  that  of  a 
comma,  or  ercater. 

'      ^  22* 


258  INSTITUTES  OF  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR.     [PART  IV. 

Rule  I, — The  Parenthesis. 

A  clause  that  breaks  the  unity  of  a  sentence  too  much  to  be 
incorporated  with  it,  and  only  such,  should  be  enclosed  as  a 
parenthesis ;  as, 

"  Know  then  this  truth,  (enough  for  man  to  know,) 
Virtue  alone  is  happiness  below." — Pope. 

Rule  II. — Included  Points. 

The  curves  do  not  supersede  other  stops;  and,  as  the  paren- 
thesis terminates  with  a  pause  equal  to  that  which  precedes  it, 
the  same  point  should  be  included,  except  when  the  sentences 
ditler  in  form  :  as, 

1.  "  Man's  thirst  of  happiness  declares  it  is  : 

(For  nature  never  gravitates  to  nought:) 

That  thirst  unquench'd,  declares  it  is  not  here." —  Young. 

2.  '•  Night  visions  may  befriend :  (as  sung  above :) 

Our  waking  dreams  are  fatal.  How  I  dreamt 
Of  things  impossible  !  (could  sleep  do  more?) 
Of  joys  perpetual  in  perpetual  change." — Young. 

SECTION   IX. — OF   THE   OTHER   MARKS. 

There  are  also  several  other  marks,  which  are  occa- 
sionally used  for  various  jjurposes,  as  follow : — 

L  [ '  ]  The  Apostrophe  usually  denotes  either  the  possessive 
case  of  a  noun,  or  the  elision  of  one  or  more  letters  of  a 
word:  as,  "The  girVs  regard  to  her  parents'  advice;" — ''gan, 
lovW^  e'e«,  tliro' ;  lor  began,  loved,  even,  through. 

2.  [  -  J  The  Hyphen  connects  the  parts  of  many  compound 
words,  especially  such  as  have  two  accents;  as,  ever-living. 
It  is  also  frequently  inserted  where  a  word  is  divided  into  syl- 
lables ;  as,  con-tem-plate.  Placed  at  the  end  of  a  line,  it  shows 
that  one  or  more  syllables  of  a  word  are  carried  forward  to 
the  next  line. 

3.  [  •*  ]  The  Diceresis,  or  Dialysis,  placed  over  either  of  two 
contiguous  vowels,  shows  that  they  are  not  a  diphthong ;  as, 
Dantie,  aerial. 

4.  [']  The  Acute  Accent  marks  the  syllable  which  requires 
the  principal  stress  in  pronunciation  ;  as,  equal,  equality.  It 
is  sometimes  used  in  opposition  to  the  grave  accent,  to  distin- 
guish a  close  or  short  vowel;  as,  ^'- Fancy T  {Murray:')  or  to 
denote  the  rising  inflection  of  the  voice;  as,  "  Is  it  heV 

5.  [  *  ]  The  Grave  Accent  is  used  in  opposition  to  the  acute, 
to  distinguish  an  open  or  long  vowel ;  as,  '■'■Favour ;"  [Mur- 
ray :)  or  to  denote  the  falling  inflection  of  the  voice ;  as, 
''Yes;  itis/ic." 


CHAP.  1.]  PROSODY.— PUNCTUATION.— OTHER  MARKS.     259 

6.  [*]  The  Circumfcx  generally  denotes  either  the  broad 
sound  of  rt,  or  an  unusual  and  long  sound  given  to  some  other 
vowel ;  as  in  eclat,  all,  heir,  machine,  move,  hull. 

7.  [  "  ]  The  Breve,  or  Stenotone,  is  used  to  denote  either  a 
close  vowel  or  a  syllable  of  short  quantity ;  as,  raven,  to  de- 
vour. 

8.  [~]  The  Macron,  or  Macrotone,  is  used  to  denote  either 
an  open  vowel  or  a  syllable  of  long  quantity  ;  as,  raven,  a 
bird. 

D.  [ ]  or  [****]  The  Mlipsis,  or  Sup2)ressio7i,  denotes 

the  omission  of  some  letters  or  words  ;  as,  A"— ^,  for  ICmg. 

10.  [a]  Tiie  Caret,  used  only  in  writing,  shows  where  to  in- 
sert words  or  letters  that  have  been  accidentally  omitted. 

11.  [—'—-]  The  JB7-ace  serves  to  unite  a  triplet;  or  to  con- 
nect several  terms  with  something  to  which  they  are  all  re- 
lated. 

13.  [§]  The  Section  marks  the  smaller  divisions  of  a  book 
or  chapter ;  and,  with  the  help  of  numbers,  serves  to  abridge 
references. 

13.  [^[]  The  Paragraph  (chiefly  used  in  the  Bible)  denotes 
the  commenceuient  of  a  new  subject.  The  parts  of  discourse 
which  are  called  paragraphs,  are,  in  general,  sufficiently  dis- 
tinguished, by  beginning  a  new  line,  and  carrying  the  first 
word  a  little  forwards  or  backwards, 

14.  [  "  "  ]  The  Guillemets,  or  Quotation  Points,  distinguish 
words  that  are  taken  from  an  other  author  or  speaker.  A  qu(j- 
tation  within  a  quotation  is  marked  with  single  points;  which, 
when  both  are  employed,  are  placed  within  the  others. 

15.  [[]]  The  Crotchets,  or  Brackets,  generally  enclose  some 
correction  or  explanation,  or  the  subject  to  be  explained ;  as, 
"He  [the  speaker]  was  of  a  difterent  opinion." 

16.  [2;^^  J  The  Index,  or  Hand,  points  out  something  re- 
markable, or  what  the  reader  should  particularly  observe. 

17.  [*]  The  Asterisk,  or  Star,  [f  J  the  Obelisk,  or  Dagger, 
[  J  ]  the  Diesis,  or  Double  Dagger,  and  [  |  ]  the  Parallels,  refer 
to  marginal  notes.  The  Section  also  [§],  and  the  Paragrajjh 
[  ^  ],  are  often  used  for  marks  of  reference,  the  former  being 
usually  applied  to  the  fourth,  and  the  latter  to  the  sixth  note 
on  a  page ;  for,  by  the  usage  of  printers,  these  signs  are  now 
commonly  introduced  in  the  following  order:  1  *  2  f ,  3  J, 
4  §,  5  I,  6  ^,  7  **,  8  ff,  &c.  When  many  references  are  to 
be  made,  the  small  letters  of  the  alphabet,  or  the  numerical 
figures,  in  their  order,  may  be  conveniently  used  for  the  same 
purpose. 

iS-  [  ***  ]  The  Aster  ism,  or  Three  Stars,  a  sign  not  very 


260  INSTITUTES  OF  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.     [PART  IV. 

often  used,  is  placed  before  a  long  or  general  note,  to  mark  it 
as  a  note,  without  giving  it  a  particular  reference, 

19.  [9]  The  Cedilla  is  a  mark  borrowed  from  the  French, 
by  whom  it  is  placed  under  the  letter  c  to  give  it  the  sound  of 
s  before  a  or  o ;  as,  in  the  words,  '■^fa^ade,^^  ^''  Alenpon.^^  In 
Worcester's  Dictionary,  it  is  attached  to  three  other  letters, 
to  denote  their  soft  sounds :  viz.,  "  G  as  J  ;  S  as  Z ;  x  as  gz." 

t3F"  [For  oral  exercises  in  punctuation,  the  teacher  may  select  any  well-pointod 
I'uok,  to  which  the  foregoins;  rules  and  explanations  may  be  applied  by  the  pupil.  An 
application  of  the  principles  of  punctuation,  either  to  points  rightly  inserted,  or  in 
the  correction  of  errors,  is  as  easy  a  process  as  ordinary  syntactical  parsing  or  correct- 
ing; and,  in  proportion  to  the  utility  of  these  principles,  as  useful.  The  exercise,  in 
relation  to  correct  pointing,  consists  in  reading  some  passage,  in  successive  parts,  ac- 
cording to  its  points;  naming  the  latter,  as  they  occur;  and  repeating  th«  rules  or 
doctrines  of  puuctualion,  as  the  reasons  for  the  marks  employed.] 


CHAPTER  II.— UTTERANCE. 

Utterance  is  llio  art  of  vocal  expression.  It  includes 
the  principles  of  pronunciation  and  elocution, 

SECTION   I. — OF   PRONUNCIATION. 

Pronunciation,  as  distinguislicd  from  elocution,  is  the 
titterance  of  words  taken  separately. 

Pronunciation  requires  a  knowledge  of  the  just  powers 
of  the  letters  in  all  their  combinations,  and  of  the  force 
and  seat  of  the  accent. 

I.  The  tTitst  Poioers  of  the  letters,  are  those  sounds  which 
are  given  to  them  by  the  best  readers. 

II,  Accent  is  the  peculiar  stress  which  wo  lay  upon  some 
particular  syllable  of  a  word,  whereby  that  syllable  is  distin- 
guished from  the  rest ;  as,  gram-mar,  gram-md-ri-an. 

Every  word  of  more  than  one  syllable,  has  one  of  its  syllar 
bles  accented. 

When  the  word  is  long,  for  the  sake  of  harmony  or  distinct- 
ness, we  often  give  a  secondary  or  less  forcible  accent  to  an 
other  syllable ;  as,  to  the  last  of  tem-per-a-t'ure,  and  to  the 
second  of  in-dem-ni-Ji-cd-tion. 

A  full  and  open  pronunciation  of  the  long  vowel  sounds,  a 
clear  articulation  of  the  consonants,  a  forcible  and  well-placed 
accent,  and  a  distinct  utterance  of  the  unaccented  syllables, 
distinguish  the  elegant  speaker. 

[^^~  For  a  full  explanation  of  the  principles  of  pronunciaiion,  the  learner  is  re- 
ferred to  Walker's  Crilical  Pronouncing  Dictionary;  for  aulhorilies  in  reference  ta 
variable  usage,  to  the  Universal  aud  Oritleal  Dictionary  of  J.  E.  Worcester.] 


CHAP.  III.]  PROSODY.— FIGURES.  261 

SECTION   II. — OF  ELOCUTION. 

Elocution  is  the  utterance  of  words  that  are  arranged 
into  sentences,  and  form  discourse. 

Elocution  requires  a  knowledge,  and  right  application, 
of  emphasis,  pauses,  inflections,  and  tones. 

I.  Emphasis  is  the  peculiar  stress  of  voice  which  we  lay 
upon  some  particular  word  or  words  in  a  sentence,  which  aro 
thereby  distinguished  from  the  rest,  as  being  more  especially 
significant. 

II.  Pauses  are  cessations  in  utterance,  which  serve  equally 
to  relieve  the  speaker,  and  to  i-ender  language  intelligible  and 
pleasing.  The  duration  of  the  pauses  should  be  proportionate 
to  the  degree  of  connexion  between  the  parts  of  the  discourse. 

III.  Inflections  are  those  peculiar  variations  of  the  human 
voice,  by  which  a  continuous  sound  is  made  to  pass  from  one 
note,  key,  or  pitch,  into  an  other.  The  passage  of  the  voice 
from  a  lower  to  a  higher  or  shriller  note,  is  called  the  rising 
or  upward  inflection.  The  passage  of  the  voice  from  a  higher 
to  a  lower  or  graver  note,  is  called  the  falling  or  doivmvard 
inflection.  These  two  opposite  inflections  may  be  heard  in 
the  following  examples :  1.  The  rising,  ''  Do  you  mean  to  gof 
2.  The  falling,  "  When  will  you  gdr 

Obs. — Questions  that  may  be  answered  by  yes  or  7w,  require  the  rising  in- 
flection ;  those  that  demand  any  other  answer,  must  be  uttered  with  the 
falhng  inflection. 

IV.  Tones  are  those  modulations  of  the  voice,  which  depend 
upon  the  feelings  of  the  speaker.  They  are  what  Sheridan 
denominates  "  the  language  of  emotions."  And  it  is  of  the  ut- 
most importance,  that  they  be  natural,  unaffected,  and  rightly- 
adapted  to  the  subject  and  to  the  occasion :  for,  upon  them,  in 
a  great  measure,  depends  ail  that  is  pleasing  or  interesting  in 
elocution. 


CHAPTER  III.— FIGURES. 

A  Figure,  in  grammar,  is  an  intentional  deviation 
from  the  ordinary  spelling,  formation,  construction,  or 
application,  of  words.  There  are,  accordingly,  iigurea 
of  Orthography,  figures  of  Etymology,  figures  of  Syntax, 
and  figures  of  Rhetoric.  When  figures  are  judiciously 
employed,  they  both  strengthen  and  adorn  expression. 
They  occur  more  frequently  in  poetry  than  in  prose ; 
and  several  of  them  are  merely  poetic  licenses. 


262  .  INSTITUTES   OF   ENGLISH   GRAMMAR.     [PART  IV. 

SECTION   I.^ — FIGURES   OF  ORTHOGRAPHY. 

A  Figure  of  Orthography  is  an  intentional  deviation 
from  the  ordinary  or  true  spelling  of  a  word. 

The  principal  figures  of  Orthography  are  two ;  namely, 
Mi-me'-sis  and  Ar'-cha-is7n. 

I.  Mimesis  is  a  ludicrous  imitation  of  some  mistake  or  mis- 
pronunciation of  a  word,  in  which  the  error  is  mimicked  by  a 
false  spelling,  or  the  taking  of  one  word  for  an  other;  as, 
"  Maister,  says  he,  have  you  any  werj/  good  weal  in  your 
vdllet  ?" — Columbian  Orator,  p.  292.  "  Ay,  he  was  joo?-?i  at 
Monmouth,  captain  Gower." — Shak,  "  I  will  description  the 
matter  to  you,  if  you  be  capacity  of  it." — Id. 

"  Perdigious  !  I  can  hardly  stand." — Lloyd. 

II.  An  Archaism  is  a  word  or  phrase  expressed  according 
to  ancient  usage,  and  not  according  to  our  modern  orthog- 
raphy;  as,  '•'•Newe  grene  chese  o^  smalle  clammy nes  comfortetlie 
a  hotte  stomakeP — T.  Paynel  :    Tookes  Diversions,  ii,  132. 

"  With  him  was  rev'rend  Contemplation  p>iglit. 
Bow-bent  with  eld^  his  beard  of  snowy  hue." — Beattie. 

SECTION  II. — FIGURES  OF  ETYMOLOGY. 

A  Figure  of  Etymology  is  an  intentional  deviation 
from  the  ordinary  formation  of  a  word. 

The  principal  figures  of  Etymology  are  eight;  namely, 
A-phcer'-e-sis,  Pros' -thesis,  Syn'-co-pe,  A-poc'-o-pe,  Par-a-go'-ge, 
Di-cer'-e-sis,  Syn-cer'-e-sis,  and  Tme'-sis. 

I.  Aphceresis  is  the  elision  of  some  of  the  initial  letters  of  a 
word:  as,  'gainst,  ''gan,  ''neath, — for  against,  began,  beneath. 

II.  Prosthesis  is  the  prefixing  of  an  expletive  syllable  to  a 
word:  as,  adown,  appa'id,  iestrown,  evanished,  yclad, — for 
down,  pxiid,  stroion,  vanished,  clad. 

III.  Syncop)G  is  the  elision  of  some  of  the  middle  letters  of 
a  word :  as,  medicine,  for  medicine;  e'en,  for  even;  o'er,  for 
over ;  conq^ring,  for  conquering  ;  sennight,  for  sevennight. 

IV.  A'poco2)8,  is  the  elision  of  some  of  the  final  letters  of  a 
word  :  as,  tho\  for  though  ;  th\  for  the ;  father,  for  the  other. 

V.  Paragoge  is  the  annexing  of  an  expletive  syllable  to  a 
word :  as,  loithouten,  for  ^oithout ;  deary,  for  dear  ;  Johnny,  for 
John. 

VI.  Diceresis  is  the  separating  of  two  vowels  that  might 
form  a  diphthong :  as,  cooperate,  not  cooperate ;  aeronaut,  not 
ceronaut ;  orthoepy,  not  orthoepy. 

VII.  Synceresis  is  the  sinking  of  two  syllables  into  one :  as, 
seest,  for  seest ;  tacked,  for  tack-ed ;  drotoned,  for  drown-ed. 


CHAP.  III.]      PROSODY.— FIGURES.— SECTION   III.  263 

Obs. — When  a  vo"wel  is  entirely  suppressed  in  pronounciation.  (whether 
retained  in  writin^r  or  not,)  the  cousomvuts  connected  with  it,  full  into  an 
other  syllable;  thus,  tried,  triest,  loved  or  lov'd.,  love.it  or  loifxt,  are  monosyl- 
lables ;  except  in  solemn  discourse,  in  which  the  e  is  generally  retained  and 
made  vocal. 

VIII.  Tmesis  is  the  inserting  of  a  word  between  the  parts 
of  a  compound ;  as,  "  On  which  side  soever  f — "^o  us  ward p 
—''To  God  ward:' 

SECTION"  III. — FIGURES   OF   SYNTAX. 

A  Figure  of  Syntax  is  an  intentional  deviation  from 
the  ordinary  construction  of  words. 

The  principal  figures  of  Syntax  are  five ;  namely,  El-lip' -siSy 
Ple'-o-tiasjn,  Syl-lep'-sis,  En-al'-la-ge,  and  Hy-per'-ba-ion. 

I.  Ellipsis*  is  the  omission  of  some  word  or  words  which 
are  necessary  to  complete  the  construction,  but  not  necessary 
to  convey  the  meaning.  Such  words  are  said  to  be  under- 
stood; because  they  are  received  as  belonging  to  the  sentence, 
though  they  are  not  uttered. 

Almost  ail  compound  sentences  arc  more  or  less  elliptical. 
There  may  be  an  omission  of  any  of  the  parts  of  speech,  or 
even  of  a  whole  clause ;  but  the  omission  of  articles  or  inter- 
jections can  scarcely  constitute  a  proper  ellipsis.     Examples : 

1.  Of  the  Article;  as,  "A  man  and  [«]  woman." — "The 
day,  [the]  month,  and  [the']  year." 

2.  Of  the  Noun ;  as,  "  The  common  \laiv]  and  the  statute 
law." — "  The  twelve  [apostles]:'' — "  One  [6oo^]  of  my  books." 
— "  A  dozen  \bottles]  of  wipe." 

3.  Of  the  Adjective  ;  as,  "There  are  subjects  proper  for  the 
one,  and  not  [proper]  for  the  other." — Karnes. 

4.  Of  the  Pro?ioi<?i. ;  as,  "I  love  [liim]  and  [7]  fear  him." — 
"  The  estates  [which]  we  own." 

*  There  never  can  be  an  ellipsis  of  any  thing  which  is  either  unnecessary  to  the  con- 
Btruction  or  necessary  to  the  sense ,  for  to  say  what  wo  moan  and  nothing  move,  never 
can  constitute  a  deviation  from  the  ordinary  grainmatical  construction  of  words.  As 
a  figure  of  Syntax,  therefore,  the  ellipsis  can  be  only  of  such  words  as  are  so  evidently 
suggested  to  the  reader,  that  the  writer  is  as  fully  answerable  for  them  as  if  he  had 
written  them.  To  suppose  an  ellipsis  where  there  is  none,  or  to  overlook  one  where 
it  really  occurs,  is  to  pervert  or  mutilate  the  text,  in  order  to  accommodate  it  to  tho 
parser's  ignorance  of  the  principles  of  syntax.  There  never  can  be  either  a  general 
uniformity  or  a  self-consistency  in  our  methods  of  parsing,  or  in  our  notions  of  gram- 
mar, tih  tho  true  nature  of  an  ellipsis  is  clearly  ascertained;  so  that  the  writer  shall 
distinguish  it  from  a  blundering  omission  that  Impairs  the  sense,  and  the  reader 
he  barred  from  an  arbitrary  insertion  of  what  would  be  cumbrous  and  useless.  By 
adopting  loose  and  extravagant  ideas  of  the  nature  of  this  fisure,  some  pretenders  to 
learning  and  philosophy  have  been  led  into  the  most  whimsical  and  opposite  notions 
concernins;  the  grammatical  construction  of  language.  Thus,  with  equal  absurdity, 
Cardell  and  Sherman,  in  their  PMloxophic  Grammars,  attempt  to  confute  tlie  doc- 
trines of  their  predecessors,  by  supposing  ellipses  at  pleasure.  And  while  the  former 
teaches,  that  prepositions  do  not  govern  the  objective  case,  but  that  every  verb  is 
transitive,  and  governs  at  least  two  objects,  expressed  or  understood,  its  own  and  that 
of  a  preposition;  the  latter,  with  just  as  good  an  argument,  contends,  that  no  verb  is 
transitive,  but  that  every  objective  case  is  governed  by  a  preposition  expressed  or  wir 
derst-ood.    A  world  of  nonsense  for  lack  of  a  dejinition  I 


264  INSTITUTES  OF  ENGLISH  GKAMMAR.     [PART  IV. 

5.  Of  the  Verb ;  as,  "  Who  did  this  ?  I"  [did  ii\.—''  To 
whom  thus  Eve,  yet  sinless"  [spo^g]. 

6.  Of  the  Participle;  as,  "That  \being\  o'er,  they  part." 

7.  O? t\yQ  Adverb ;  as,  "  He  spoke  [ivisely']  and  acted  wisely." 
•^"Exceedingly  great  and  [exceedingly]  powerful.'' 

8.  Of  the  Conjunction  ;  as,  "  The  fruit  of  the  Spirit  is-  love, 

fand\  joy,  \and\  peace,  \and\  long-suffering,  [and]  gentleness, 
and[\  goodness,  [and]  faith,  [a/if/]  meekness,  \and\  temper- 
ance."—  Gal.^  V,  22.  The  repetition  of  the  conjunction  is  called 
Polysyndeton  ;  and  the  omission  of  it.  Asyndeton. 

9.  Of  the  Preposition;  as,  "[On]  this  day." — "  [//i]  next 
month." — "  He  departed  [/rom]  this  life." — "  He  gave  [to]  me 
a  book." — "To  walk  [through]  a  mile." 

10.  Of  the  Interjection;  as,  "  Oh !  the  frailty,  [Oh!]  the 
wickedness  of  men  !" 

11.  Of  a  Phrase  or  Clause ;  as,  "The  active  commonly  do 
more  than  they  are  bound  to  do  ;  the  indolent  [coimnonly  do] 
less"  [than  they  are  bound  to  do]. 

II.  Pleonasm  is  the  introduction  of  superfluous  words.  This 
figure  is  allowable  only,  when,  in  animated  discourse,  it  ab- 
ruptly introduces  an  emphatic  word,  or  repeats  an  idea  to  im- 
press it  more  strongly  ;  as,  ''•He  that  hath  ears  to  hear,  let  him 
hear !" — "  All  ye  inhabitants  of  the  world,  and  dwellers  on  the 
earth .'" — "  There  shall  not  be  left  one  stone  upon  an  other,  that 
shall  not  he  thrown  down.'''' — "  I  know  thee  who  thou  art^ — 
B'lhle.  A  Pleonasm  is  sometimes  impressive  and  elegant;  but 
an  unemphatic  repetition  of  the  same  idea,  is  one  of  the  worst 
faults  of  bad  writing. 

III.  Syllepsis  is  agreement  formed  according  to  the  figura- 
tive sense  of  a  word,  or  the  mental  conception  of  the  thing 
spoken  of,  and  not  according  to  the  literal  or  conmion  use  of 
the  term ;  it  is  therefore,  in  general,  connected  with  some 
figure  of  rhetoric:  as,  "The  Word  was  made  flesh  and  dwelt 
among  us,  and  we  beheld  his  glory." — John,  i,  14.  "Then 
Philip  went  down  to  the  city  of  Samaria,  and  preached.  Christ 
unto  themP — Acts^  viii,  5,  "  While  Evening  draws  her  crim- 
son curtains  round." — Thomson. 

IV.  Enallage  is  the  use  of  one  part  of  speech,  or  of  one 
modification  for  an  other.  This  figure  borders  closely  upon 
solecism  ;*  and,  for  the  stability  of  the  language,  it  should  be 

*  Deviations  of  this  kind  are,  in  general,  to  be  considereil  solecisms;  otherwise  tha 
rules  of  grammar  would  be  of  no  use  or  authority.  Despnuter,  an  ancient  Latin  gram- 
marian, gave  an  improper  latitude  to  this  figure,  under  the  name  of  Aiitipiosis ;  and 
Behourt  and  others  extended  it  still  further.  But  Sanctius  says,  "  Antiptosi  gram- 
maticorum  nihil  imperitius,  quod  figmentum  si  enset  verum,  frustra  qucereretur, 
quern  camm- verba  regerent."    And  the  Mesayiurs  De  Port  Eoyal  reject  the  flguro 


CHAP.  III.]      PROSODY —FIGURES.— SECTION   17.  265 

sparingly  indulged.  There  arc,  however,  several  forms  of  it 
which  can  appeal  to  good  authority  :  as, 

1.  "  You  know  that  you  are  Brutus,  that  s^eaJt  this." — Shak. 

2.  "They  fall  successive  [ly].  and  successive  [ly]  rise.'' — Pope. 

3.  "  Than  ivhom  [who]  none  higher  sat." — Milton. 

4.  "Sure  some  disaster  has  befell  [befallen]. —  Gay. 

5.  "  So  furious  was  that  onset's  shock, 

Destruction's  gates  at  once  unlock.'''' — Hogg. 

V.  Hyperhaton  is  the  transposition  of  words  ;  as,  "  He  wan- 
ders earth  around.^'' — Cowpcr.  "  Rings  the  ioorld\f\th.  the  vain 
stir." — Id.  "  Whom  therefore  ye  ignorantly  worship,  him  de-- 
clare  I  unto  you." — Ads.  This  figure  is  much  employed  in 
poetry.  A  judicious  use  of  it  confers  harmony,  yariety, 
strength,  and  vivacity  upon  composition.  But  care  should  bo 
taken  lest  it  produce  ambiguity  or  obscurity. 

SECTION"  IV. — FIGURES  OF  RHETORIC. 

A  Figure  of  Ehetoric  is  an  intentional  deviatioa 
from  the  ordinary  application  of  words.  Some  figures 
of  this  kind  are  commonly  called  Tropes,  i.  e.,  turns. 

Numerous  departures  from  perfect  simplicity  of  diction, 
occur  in  almost  every  kind  of  composition.  They  are  mostly 
founded  on  some  similitude  or  relation  of  things,  which,  by 
the  power  of  imagination,  is  rendered  conducive  to  ornament 
or  illustration. 

The  principal  figures  of  Rhetoric  are  fourteen )  namely 
Sini'-i-le\  Met'-a-phor,  Al'-lc-gor-y,  Me-ton'-y-my,  Sijn-ec'-do-che, 
Ily-per'-bo-le,  Vis -ion,  A-pos'-trophe.,  Person' -i-Ji-ca'-tion,  Er-o- 
te'-sis,  Ec-ph0'7ie'-sis,  An-tith'-e-sis,  Cli'-max,  and  T-ro-ny. 

I,  A  Simile  is  a  simple  and  express  comparison ;  and  is 
generally  introduced  by  like,  as,  or  so :  as,  -. 

"  At  first,  like  thunde7'''s  distant  tone. 
The  rattling  din  cama  rolling  on." — Hogg. 
"  Man,  like  the  generous  vine,  supported  lives  ; 
The  strength  he  gains,  is  from  th'  embrace  he  gives." — Pope. 

II.  A  Metajihor  is  a  figure  that  expresses  the  resemblance 
of  two  objects  by  applying  either  the  name,  or  some  attribute 
adjunct,  or  action  of  the  one,  directly  to  the  other ;  as, 

1.  "  His  eye  was  morning''s  brightest  rayT — Hogg. 

2.  "  An  angler  in  the  tides  of  fame." — Id. 

flltosretlier.  Thei-o  are,  however,  some  changes  of  this  kind,  which  the  grammarian  le 
not  competent  to  condemn,  thl)ugh  they  do  not  accord  with  the  ordinary  principles  of 
coustruetion. 

12 


^ 


266  INSTITUTES  OF  ENGLISH  GRAMMAE:     [PARTIV. 

3.  "  Beside  him  sleeps  the  warrior's  how. ''^— -Lang home. 

4.  "  Wild  fancies  in  his  moody  urain, 

Gambol' d  unbridled  and  unbound.'''' — Hogg. 

5.  "Speechless,  and  fix'd  in  all  the  death  of  wo." — Thorn. 

III.  Kn.  Allegory  is  a  continued  narration  of  fictitious  events, 

designed  to  represent  and  illustrate  important  realities.     Thus 

the  Psalmist  represents  the  Jewish  nation  under  the  symbol  of 

a  vine  :  "  Thou  hast  brought  a  vine  out  of  Egypt :  thou  hast 

cast  out  the  heathen  and  planted  it.     Thou  preparedst  room 

before  it,  and  didst  cause  it  to  take  deep  root ;  and  it  tilled  the 

land.     The  hills  were  covered  with  the  shadow  of  it,  and  the 

boughs  thereof  were  like  the  goodly  cedars." — Ps.,  Ixxx,  8. 

Obs. — The  Allegory,  agreeably  to  tlie  foregoing  definition  of  it,  ineludea 
most  of  those  similitudes  which  in  the  Scriptures  are  called  ^araJfcs  ;  it  in- 
cludes also  the  better  sort  GifaUes.  The  term  allegory  is  sometimes  applied 
to  a  true  Mstory  in  which  something  else  is  intended,  than  is  contained  in  the 
words  literally  taken.  [See  Gal.,  iv,  24.]  In  t\i&  Scriptures,  the  lexva  fahls 
denotes  an  idle  and  groundless  story.     [See  1  Tim.,  iv,  1 ;  and  2  Pet.,  i,  16.] 

IV.  A  Metonymy  is  a  change  of  names.  It  is  founded  on 
some  such  relation  as  that  of  cause  and  effect,  of  subject  and 
adjunct,  o? place  and  inhabitant.,  of  container  and  thing  contain- 
ed, or  o^ sign  and  thing  signified:  as,  "God  is  our  salvation;''^ 
i.  6.,  Saviour. — "  He  was  the  sigh  of  her  secret  soul ;"  i.  e.,  the 
youth  she  loved. — "They  smote  the  city  f  i.  e.,  citizens. — 
"My  son,  give  me  thy  heart f  i.  e.,  affection. — "The  sceptrs 
shall  not  depart  from  Judah ;"  i.  e.,  kingly  power. 

V.  Synedoche  is  the  naming  of  the  whole  for  a  part,  or  of 
a  part  for  the  whole;  as,  "This  roof  [i.  e.,  house]  protects 
you." — "  Now  the  year  [i.  e.,  summer]  is.beautiful." 

VI.  Hyperbole  is  extravagant  exaggeration,  in  which  the 
imagination  is  indulged  beyond  the  sobriety  of  truth;  as, 

"  The  sky  shrunk  upward  luith  unusual  dread. 
And  trembling  Tiber  div''d  beneath  his  bed.'''' — Dryden. 

VII.  Vision,  or  Imagery,  is  a  figure  by  which  the  speaker 
represents  the  objects  of  his  imagination,  as  actually  before  liia 
eyes,  and  present  to  his  senses ;  as, 

"  I  see  the  dagger-crest  of  Mar  ! 
I  see  the  Moray's  silver  star 
Wave  o'er  the  cloud  of  Saxon  war, 
That  up  the  lake  comes  winding  far  !" — Scott. 

VIII.  Apiostroplte  is  a  turning  from  the  regular  course  of  the 
subject,  into  an  animated  address ;  as,  "  Death  is  swallowed 
up  in  victory.  O  Death !  where  is  thy  sting  ?  O  Grave ! 
where  is  thy  victory  V — 1  Con,  xv,  54,  55. 

IX.  Personification  is  a  figure  T)y  which,  in  imagination,  we 


CHAP.  IV.]  PROSODY.— VERSIFICATIOi^.  267 

ascribe  intelligence  and  personality  to  unintelligent  beings  or 
abstract  qualities ;  as, 

1.  "The  Worm,  aware  of  his  intent, 

Harangued  him  thus,  right  eloquent." — Coioper. 

2.  "  Lo,  steel-clad  War  his  gorgeous  standard  rears  !" — Rog. 

3.  "  Hark  !   Truth  proclaims,  thy  triumphs  cease." — Id. 

X.  Erotesis  is  a  figure  in  which  the  speaker  adopts  the  form 
of  interrogation,  not  to  express  a  doubt,  Iiut,  in  general,  confi- 
dently to  assert  the  reverse  of  what  is  asked ;  as,  "  Hast  thou 
an  arm  like  God?  or  canst  thou  thunder  with  a  voice  like 
him  ?" — Job,  xl,  9.  "  He  that  planted  the  ear,  shall  he  not 
hear?  he  that  formed  the  eye,  shall  he  not  see  V — Ps.,  xciv,  9. 

XI.  Ecphonesis  is  a  pathetic  exclamation,  denoting  some 
violent  emotion  of  the  mind ;  as,  "  O  liberty  ! — O  sound  once 
delightful  to  every  Roman  ear  ! — O  sacred  privilege  of  Roman 
citizenship! — once  sacred — now  trampled  upon!" — Cicero. 
"  0  that  I  had  wings  like  a  dove !  for  then  would  I  fly  away 
and  be  at  rest !" — Ps.,  Iv,  6. 

XII.  Antithesis  is  a  placing  of  things  in  opposition,  to  heighten 
their  effect  by  contrast ;  as, 

"  Contrasted  faults  through  all  his  manners  reign  ; 
Though  ^;oor,  luxurious  ;  thougli  submissive,  vain  • 
Though  ^rat^e,  yet  trifling ;  zealous,  yet  untrue; 
And  e'en  in  penance,  planning  sins  anew." — Goldsmith. 

XIII.  Climax  is  a  figure  in  which  the  sense  is  made  to  ad- 
vance by  successive  steps,  to  rise  gradually  to  what  is  more 
and  more  important  and  interesting,  or  to  descend  to  what  is 
more  and  more  minute  and  particular ;  as,  "  And  beside  this, 
giving  all  diligence,  add  to  your  faith,  virtue ;  and  to  virtue, 
knowledge ;  and  to  knowledge,  temperance ;  and  to  temper- 
ance, patience ;  and  to  patience,  godliness ;  and  to  godliness, 
brotherly  kindness;  and  to  brotherly  kindness,  charity." — 2 
Peter,  i,  5. 

XIV.  Jrong  is  a  figure  in  which  the  speaker  sneeringly  ut> 
lers  the  direct  reverse  of  what  he  intends  shall  be  understood  ; 
as,  "  We  have,  to  be  sure,  great  reason  to  believe  the  modest 
man  would  not  ask  him  for  a  debt,  when  he  pursues  his  life." 
—  Cicero. 


CHAPTER  IV.— VERSIFICATION. 

Versification  is  the  art  of  arranoing-  words  into  lines 
of  correspondent  length,  so  as  to  produce  harmony  by 
the  regular  alternation  of  syllables  differing  in  quantity. 


268  INSTITUTES   OF   ENGLISH   GEAMMAE.     [PART  lY. 

SECTION   I. — OF   QUANTITY. 

The  Quantity  of  a  syllable,  is  tlie  relative  portion  of 
time  occupied  in  uttering  it.  In  poetry,  every  syllable 
is  considered  to  be  either  long  or  short.  A  long  syllable 
is  reckoned  to  be  equal  to  two  short  ones. 

Ob9.  1. — The  quantity  of  a  syllable  does  not  depend  on  the  sound  of  tho 
vowel  or  diphthong,  but  principally  on  the  degree  of  accentual  force  with 
which  the  syllable  is  uttered,  whereby  a  greater  or  less  portion  of  time  is 
employed.  The  open  vowel  sounds  are  those  which  are  the  most  easily  pro- 
tracted, yet  they  often  occur  in  the  shortest  and  feeblest  syllables. 

Obs.  2. — Most  monosyllables  are  variable,  and  may  be  made  eitlier  long  or 
short,  as  suits  the  rhythm.  In  words  of  greater  length,  the  accented  syllable 
is  always  long ;  and  a  syllable  immediately  before  or  after  that  which  is  ac- 
cented, is  always  short. 

SECTION  II. — OF  EHYME. 

Rhyme  is  a  similarity  of  sound,  between  tlie  last  syl- 
lables of  different  lines  or  half  lines.  Blank  verse  is 
verse  without  rhyme. 

Obs. — The  principal  rhyming  syllables  are  almost  always  long.  Double 
rhyme  adds  oao  snort  syllable ;  triple  rhyme,  two.  Guch  syllables  are  redun- 
dant in  iambic  and  anapestic  verses. 

SECTION  III. — OF  POETIC  FEET. 

A  line  of  poetry  consists  of  successive  combinations  of 
syllables,  called  yee^.  A  poetic /jo;!,  in  English,  consists 
either  of  two  or  of  three  syllables. 

The  principal  English  feet  are  the  Iambus,  the  Trochee,  the 
Anapest,  and  the  Dactyl. 

1.  Tiie  Iambus,  or  Iamb,  is  a  poetic  foot  consisting  of  a  short 
syllahle  and  a  long  one ;  as,  betray,  confess, 

2.  The  Trochee,  or  Choree,  is  a  poetic  foot  consisting  of  a 
long  syllable  and  a  short  one  ;  as,  hdteffd,  pettish. 

3.  The  Anapest  is  a  poetic  foot  consisting  of  two  short  syl- 
lables and  one  long  one ;  as,  contravene,  acquiesce. 

4.  The  Dactyl  is  a  poetic  foot  consisting  of  one  long  syllable 
and  two  short  ones ;  as,  labourer,  possible. 

We  have,  accordingly,  four  principal  kinds  of  verse,  or  poetic 
measure ;  Iambic,  Trochaic,  Anapestic,  and  Dactylic. 

Obs.  1. — Tho  more  pure  these  several  kinds  are  preserved,  the  more  exact 
And  complete  is  the  chime  of  the  verse.  But  poets  generally  indulge  some 
variety ;  not  so  much,  however,  as  to  confound  the  drift  of  the  rhythmieal 
pulsations. 

Obs.  2.— Among  the  occasional  diversifications  of  metre,  are  sometimes 
found  or  supposed  sundry  other  feet,  which  are  called  secondary:  as,  tho 
ispondce,  a  foot  of  two  long  syllables ;  the  PyrrJuc,  of  two  short :  the  Molosg, 
'jt  three  long  syllables  ;  the  Tribrach,  of  three  short :  the  ArnpJdhracJi,  a  long 
syllable  with  a  short  one  on  each  side  ;  the  Aniphimac,  Aniphimacer,  or  Cretic, 
a  short  syllable  with  a  long  one  on  each  side :  the  Bacchy,  a  short  syllabla 


CHAP.  IV.]      PllOSODY.— VERSIFICATION.— OEDER  I.       269 

and  two  long  ones;  tlie  A)itihacchy,  or  Ilijpohacchy,  two  long  syllables  and  a 
short  one.  Yet  few,  if  any,  of  tliese  feet,  are  really  7iece8mry  to  a  sufficient 
exi)lanatlon  of  English  verse ;  and  tlie  adopting  of  so  many  is  liable  to  tlT) 
great  objection,  that  we  thereby  produce  ditlerent  modes  of  measuring  tha 
eame  lines. 

Obs.  3. — Sometimes  also  verses  are  variegated  by  what  is  called  the  pedal 
ewsura,  or  cenure;  (i.  c.,  cutting  ;}  which  is  a  single  long  syllable  counted  by 
itself  as  a  foot.  For,  despite  the  absurd  suggestions  of  many  grammarian* 
and  prosodists  to  the  contrary,  all  metrical  deficiencies  and  rcdundaucie* 
embrace  nothing  but  sTioft  syllables,  and  the  number  of  long  ones  in  a  hni 
is  almost  always  the  number  oifeet  which  compose  it ;  as, 
"  Keeping  |  time,  \  time,  \  time, 
In  a  I  sort  of  |  Eunic  |  rhyme.'''' — E.  A.  Poe. 

SECTION   IV. — OF   SCANNING. 

Scanning^  or  Scayision,  is  the  dividing  of  verses  into 
tlic  ±eet  wiiicli  compose  tliem,  according  to  the  several 
orders  of  poetic  numbers,  or  the  different  kinds  of  metre. 

Obs.— When  a  syllabic  is  wanting,  the  verse  is  said  to  be  catalectlc  ;  when 
the  measure  is  exact,  tlic  line  is  acatakdk  ;  when  there  is  a  redundant  syl- 
lable, it  forms  hypermeie);  or  a  line  hypercatalectic. 

Order  I. — Iambic  Verse. 

In  Iambic  verse,  the  stress  is  laid  on  the  even  syllables,  and 
the  odd  ones  are  short.     It  consists  of  the  followina:  measures : — 

Measure  1st. — Iambic  of  Eiglit  Feet,  or  Octometer. 
"  O  all  I  ye  peol-ple,  clap  |  your  hands,  [  and  with  |  tnam|- 
phant  voic|-6s  sing ; 
No  force  |  the    might |-y  pow'r  |  withstands  |  of  God  j  the 
u|-nivers|-al  King." 

Obs. — Each  couplet  of  this  verse  is  now  commonly  reduced  to,  or  ex- 
changed for,  a  simple  stanza  of  four  tetrameter  lines ;  thus, — 
"  The  hour  |  is  come  !  — the  cher|-ish'd  hour. 
When  from  |  the  bus|-y  world  |  set  free, 
I  seek  I  at  length  |  my  lone]-ly  bower, 

And  muse  |  in  sij-lent  thought  |  on  thee." — IIooJc. 

Measure  2d. — Iambic  of  Seven  Feet,  or  Ileptameter. 

"The     Lord  |  descend |-ed     from  |  above,  |  and     bow'd  j  thS 
he  av  I -ens  high." 

Obs. — Modern  poets  have  divided  this  kind  of  verse,  into  alternato  lines 
of  four  and  of  three  feet;  thus,— 

"O  blind  I  to  each  |  indull-gent  aim 
Of  pow'r  I  suprcmel-ly  wise. 
Who  fan|-cy  hap|-piness  |  in  aught 
The  hand  |  of  hcav'n  |  denies !" 

Measure  3d. — Iambic  of  Six  Feet,  or  Hexameter. 

"Thy  realm  |  forev|-er  lasts,  |  th}'  own  [  Messlj-ah  reigns." 

Obs. — Tills  is  the  Alexandrine ;  it  is  seldom  used  except  to  complete  a 
Btanza  in  an  ode,  or  occasionally  to  close  a  period  iu  heroic  rhyme.  Freacii 
heroics  are  similar  to  this. 

23* 


270  INSTITUTES  OF  ENGLISH   GRAMMAK.     [PART  lY. 

Measure  4th. — Iambic  of  Five  Feet,  or  Pentameter. 


*'  For  praise  |  too  dear 
Enfeel-bles  all  I  inter 


-ly  lov'd  I  or  warm|-iy  sought, 
-nal  strength  |  of  thought." 
"With  sol|-emn  ad|-ora|-tion  down  |  they  cast 
Their  crowns  |  inwove  |  with  am|-arant  |  and  gold." 
Obs.  1. — This  is  the  regular  English  heroic.    It  is,  perhaps,  the  only  mens- 
Bre  suitable  for  blank  verse. 

Obs.  2.— The  Elegiac  Stanza  consists  of  four  heroics  rhyming  alternately ; 
ss, 

"  Enough  I  has  Heav'n  |  indulg'd  ]  of  joy  |  below, 

To  tempt  I  our  tarj-riauce  in  |  this  lov'd  |  retreat; 
Enough  I  has  Ileav'n  |  ordain'd  |  of  nse|-ful  wo, 
To  make  |  us  lang|-uish  for  |  a  hap|-pier  seat." 

Measure  5th. — Iambic  of  Four  Feet,  or  Tetrameter. 
"Tlie  joys  |  above  |  are  iin|-derstood 
And  rel|-ish'd  ou|-ly  by  |  the  good." 

Measure  6th. — Iambic  of  Three  Feet,  or  Trimeter. 
"  Bliie  llghtj-nings  singe  |  the  waves, 
And  thun|-der  rends  |  the  rock." 

Measure  7th. — Iambic  of  Two  Feet,  or  Dimeter. 
"Their  love  |  and  awe 
Supply  I  the  law." 

Measure  8th. — Iambic  of  One  Foot,  or  Monometer. 
"  How  bright, 
The  light !" 

Obs.  1. — Lines  of  fewer  than  seven  syllables  are  seldom  found,  except  in 
connexion  with  longer  verses. 

Obs.  2.— In  iambic  verse,  the  first  foot  is  often  varied,  by  introducing  a 
trochee ;  as, 

'■'■Planets  \  and  suns  1  run  lawl-lcss  through  |  the  sky." 
Obs.  3.— By  a  synaresis  of  the  two  short  syllables,  or  perhaps  by  mere 
Bubstitution,  an  anapest  may  sometimes  be  employed  for  an  iambus ;  or  a 
dactyl,  for  a  trochee :  as, 

'■'O'er  man\-y  a  />o|-zen,  man|-y  afi\-er]j  AlpP 

Order  II. — ^Trochaic  Verse. 
In  Trochaic  verse,  the  stress  is  laid  on  the  odd  syllables,  and 
the  even  ones  are  short.  Single-rhymed  trochaic  omits  the 
final  short  syllable,  that  it  may  end  with  a  long  one.  This 
kind  of  verse  is  the  same  as  iambic  would  be  without  the  ini- 
tial short  syllable.  Iambics  and  trochaics  often  occur  in  the 
same  poem. 

Measure  1st. — Trochaic  of  Eight  Feet,  or  Octometer. 
"Once  upl-on  a  \  midnight  |  dreary,  ]  while  I  |  pondered,  | 
weak  and  j  weary, 
Over  j  many  d  \  quaint  and  |  curious  \  volume  [  of  for) 
-gotten  I  lore, 


CHAP.  IV.]       PROSODY.— VERSIFICATION.— ORDER  II.       271 

While  I  I  nodded,  |  nearly  [  napping,  |  sudden|-ly   there  \ 
came  a  |  tapping, 
As  of  I  some  one  |  gently  |  rapping,  j  rapping  |  at  my  j 
chamber  |  door." 

Measure  2d. — Trochaic  of  Seven  Feet,  or  Heptameter. 
"Hasten,  |  Lord,  to  |  rescue  j  me,  and  |  set  me  |  safe  from  | 
trouble ; 
Shame  thou  |  those  who  |  seek  my  |  soul,  re|-ward  their  | 
mischief  |  double." 

Single  Rhyme. 
"Night    and  |  morning  |  were    at  |  meeting  j  over  |  Water| 
-loo; 
Cocks  had  |  sung  their  j  earliest  \  greeting ;  |  faint  and  |  low 
they  I  crew." 

Measure  3d. — ^Trochaic  of  Six  Feet,  or  Hexameter. 


« 


On  a  I  mountain 
Lay  a  |  shepherd 


stretch 'd  bei-neath  a  |  hoar^  I  willow, 


swain,  and  |  view'dthe  |  rolling  |  billow." 
Single  Rhyme. 

"  Lonely  |  in  the  |  forest,  |  subtle  |  from  his  |  birth, 
Lived  a  |  necro|-mancer,  |  wondrous  |  son  of  |  earth." 

Measure  4th. — Trochaic  of  Five  Feet,  or  Pentameter. 

*'  Virtue's  1  brlght'ning  |  ray  shall  |  beam  for  |  ever." 

Single  Rhyme. 

"  Idle  I  after  |  dinner,  |  In  his  |  chair. 
Sat  a  I  farmer,  |  ruddy,  [  fit,  and  |  fair." 

Measure  5th. — Trochaic  of  Four  Feet,  or  Tetrameter. 
"  Round  a  [  hol}^  |  calm  dif  |-fiising, 
Love  of  I  peace  and  |  lonely  |  musing." 

Single  Rhyme. 
"  Restless  |  mortals  j  toil  for  |  naught. 
Bliss  in  |  vain  from  |  earth  is  ]  sought." 

Measure  6th. — Trochaic  of  Three  Feet,  or  Trimeter. 

"  When  our  j  hearts  ai-e  |  mourning." 

Single  Rhyme. 

"  In  the  1  days  of  |  old, 
Stories  |  plainly  |  told." 

Measure  7th. — Trochaic  of  Two  Feet,  or  Dimeter. 

"  Fancy  I  viewing, 
Joys  en|-suing." 


272  INSTITUTES   OF   ENGLISH   GRAMMAR.      [PART  IV. 


Single  Rhyme. 

"  Tumult 
Sink  to 


cease, 
peace." 


Measure  8th. — Trochaic  of  One  Foot,  or  Monometer. 

"  Changing, 
Ranging." 

I  Order  III. — Anapestic  Verse. 

In  Anapestic  verse  the  stress  is  laid  on  every  third  syllable. 
The  first  foot  of  an  anapestic  line,  may  be  an  iambus. 

Measure  1st. — Anapestic  of  Four  Feet,  or  Tetrameter. 

"  At  the  close  |  of  the  day,  |  when  the  ham|-let  is  still, 
And  r/zor|-tals  the  sweets  j  of  forgetj-fulness  prove." 

Hypermeter  with  Double  Rhyme. 

*'  In  a  word,  [  so  complete|-ly  forestall'd  [  were  the  wish|-es, 
Even  har|-mony  struck  |  from  the  noise  |  of  the  dishj-es." 

Hypermeter  with  Triple  Rhyrne. 

*'  Lean  Tom,  |  when  I  saw  [  him,  last  weelc,  [  on  his  horse  [ 
awry, 
Threaten'd  loud|-ly  toturn  ]  me  to  stone  [  with,  his  sor\-cery.^ 

Measure  2c1. — Anapestic  of  Three  Feet,  or  Trimeter. 

"  I  am  m  on  I -arch  of  all  |  I  survey  ; 
Mi/  riff  hi  I  there  is  none  |  to  dispute." 

Measure  3d. — Anapestic  of  Two  Feet,  or  Dimeter. 

"  When  I  look  ]  on  my  boys, 
They  renew  j  all  my  joys." 

Measure  4th. — Anapestic  of  One  Foot,  or  Monometer. 

"  On  the  land 
Let  me  stand." 

Order  IV. — Dactylic  Verse. 

In  pure  Dactylic  verse,  the  stress  is  laid  on  the  first  syllable 
of  each  successive  three ;  that  is,  on  the  first,  the  fourth,  the 
seventh,  the  tenth  syllable,  &c.  Full  dactylic  generally  forms 
triple  rhyme.  When  one  of  the  final  short  syllables  is  omitted, 
the  rhyme  is  double ;  Avhen  both,  single.  Dactylic  with  single 
rhyme  is  the  same  as  anapestic  would  be  without  its  initial 
short  syllables.  Dactylic  measure  is  rather  uncommon  j  and, 
when  employed,  is  seldom  perfectly  regular. 


CHAP.  IV.]    PROSODY.— VERSIFICATION.— ORDER  IV.        273 

Measure  1st. — Dactylic  of  Eight  Feet,  or  Octomcter. 

"Niinrodtho  |  hunter  was  |  mighty  in  |  hunting,  and  |  famed 
as  the  I  ruler  of  |  cities  of  |  yore ; 
Babel,  and  |  Erech,  and  |  Accad,  and  |  Calneh,  from  |  Shi- 
nar's  fair  |  region  his  |  name  afar  j  bore." 

Measure  2d. — Dactylic  of  Seven  Feet,  or  Ileptameter. 
•'  Out  of  the  1  kingdom  of  |  Christ  shall  be  |  gathered,  by  | 
angels  o'er  |  Satan  vic|-torious, 
All  that  of|fendeth,  that  |  lieth,  that  |  failethto  [  honour  his 
I  name  ever  |  glorious." 

Measure  3d. — Dactylic  of  Six  Feet,  or  Hexameter. 
"  Time,  thou  art  |  ever  in  |  motion,  on  |  wheels  of  the  [  days, 
years,  and  |  ages ; 
Restless  as  (  waves  of  the  |  ocean,  when  |  Eurus  or  ]  Boreas 


rages." 


Example  without  Rhyme. 

"This  is  the  ]  foreet  pri|-meval ;  but  |  where  are  the  |  hearts 
that  be|-neath  it 
Leap'd  like  the  |  roe,  when  he  |  hears  in  the  |  woodland  the 
I  voice  of  the  |  huntsman  1" 

Measure  4th. — Dactylic  of  Five  Feet,  or  Pentameter, 

"  Now  thou  dost  I  welcome    me,  |  welcome  me,  |  from  the 
dark  |  sea, 
Land  of  the  |  beautiful,  |  beautiful,  [  land  of  the  [  free." 

Measure  5th. — Dactylic  of  Four  Feet,  or  Tetrameter. 

*' Boys  will  an[tlcipate,  |  lavish,  and  |  dl>isipate 

All  that  your  |  busy  pate  j  hoarded  with  |  care ; 
And,  in  their  |  foolishness,  |  passion,  and  |  mulishness. 
Charge  you  with  j  churlishness,  |  spurning  your  |  pray'r." 

Measure  6th. — Dactylic  of  Three  Feet,  or  Trimeter. 

"  Ever  sing  |  merrily,  |  merrily."  | 

Measure  7th. — Dactylic  of  Two  Feet,  or  Dimeter. 
"  Free  from  sa|tlety, 
Care,  and  anx|iety, 
Charms  in  va|riety, 
Fall  to  his  I  share." 

Measure  8th. — Dactylic  of  One  Foot,  or  Monometer. 

"  Fearfully, 
Tearfully." 
12* 


274  INSTITUTES  OF  ENGLISH   GRAMMAPw     [PAET IV. 

CHAPTER  Y.— ORAL  EXERCISES. 
EXAMPLES  FOR  PARSING. 

PRAXIS   VIII. — PROSODICAL. 

Jn  the  Eighth  Praxis,  are  exempUJied  the  several  Figures  of 
Orthography,  of  Etymology,  of  Syntax,  and  of  Rhetoric,  which 
the  parser  may  name  and  define ;  and  by  it  the  pupil  may 
also  be  exercised  in  relation  to  the  principles  of  Punctuation, 
Utterance,  and  Versification. 

LESSON  I. — FIGURES   OF  ORTHOGRAPHY. 
MIMESIS    AND    ARCHAISM. 

^■'■Fery  goot:  I  will  make  ajon'e/"of  it  in  my  note-book;  and 
we  will  afterwards  ''orh  upon  the  cause  with  as  great  discreetly 
as  we  can." — Shak. 

"  Vat  is  you  sing  ?  I  do  not  like  dese  toys.  Pray  you,  go 
and  vetch  me  in  my  closet  un  boitier  verd ;  a  box,  a  green-a 
box.     Do  intend  vat  I  soeak  ?  a  green-a  box." — Id. 

"  I  ax''d  you  what  you  had  to  sell.  I  am  fitting  out  a  wessel 
for  Wenice,  loading  her  with  warious  keinds  of prowisions,  and 
wittualling  her  for  a  long  woyage  ;  and  I  want  several  undred 
weight  of  weal,  wenison,  &c.,  with  plenty  of  inyons  and  winegar^ 
for  the  preserwation  of  ealtlC — Columbian  Orator,  p.  292. 

"  None  [else  are]  so  desperately  evill,  as  they  that  may  bee 
good  and  will  not :  or  have  heene  good  and  are  not." — Pev. 
John  Rogers,  1620,  "  A  Carpenter  finds  his  work  as  hee  left 
it,  but  a  Minister  shall  find  his  sett  back.  You  need  preach 
continually." — Id. 

"  Here  whilom  ligg''d  th'  Esopus  of  his  age. 
But  call'd  by  Fame,  in  soul  y pricked  deep." — Thomson. 

"  It  was  a  fountain  of  Nepenthe  rare. 
Whence,  as  Dan  Homer  sings,  huge  pleasaunce  grew."— /o?. 

LESSON   II. — FIGURES   OF  ETYMOLOGY. 

APK.ERESIS,  PROSTHESIS,  SYNCOPE,  APOCOPE,  PARAGOGE,  DI.ERESIS, 

SYNiERESIS,    AND    TMESIS. 

Bend  ''gainst  the  steepy  hill  thy  breast, 

Burst  down  like  torrent  from  its  crest." — Scott. 

^Tis  mine  to  teach  tK'  inactive  hand  to  reap 

Kind  nature's  bounties,  o'er  the  globe  diffus''d. — Dyer. 

Alas  !  alas  !  how  impotently  true 

Th''  aen'a/ pencil  forms  the  scene  anew. — Cawthorn«, 


CHAP,  v.]      PROSODY. — PARSING. — PRAXIS  IX.  275 

Here  a  doformed  monster  joi/d  to  won, 
Which  on  fell  rancour  ever  was  yhent. — Lloyd. 

Withouten  trump  was  proclamation  made. — Thomson. 

The  gentle  knight,  who  saw  their  rueful  case, 

Let  fall  adown  his  silver  beard  some  tears. 

'  Certes,'  quoth  he,  '  it  is  not  e'en  in  grace, 

T''  undo  the  past  and  eke  your  broken  years.' — Id. 

Vain  tamp' ring  has  hut  foster'' d  his  disease; 

"'TIS  desp'rate^  and  he  sleeps  the  sleep  of  death. —  Coioper. 

I  have  a  pain  upon  my  forehead  here — 

Why  thafs  with  watching ;  '' twill  away  again. — ShaJcspeare. 

m  to  the  woods,  among  the  happier  brutes  ; 

Come,  leth  away  ;  hark  !  the  shrill  horn  resounds. — Smith. 

What  prayer  and  supplication  soever  be  made. — Bible. 

By  the  grace  of  God  we  have  had  our  conversation  in  the 
world,  and  more  abundantly  to  you  ivard. — Id. 

LESSON"  III. — FIGURES   OF  SYNTAX. 

FIGURE    I. ELLIPSIS. 

And  now  he  faintly  kens  the  bounding  fawn. 

And  [ — ]  villager  [ — ]  abroad  at  early  toil. — Beattie. 

The  cottage  curs  at  { — ]  early  pilgrim  bark. — Id. 

'Tis  granted,  and  no  plainer  truth  appears. 

Our  most  important  [ — ]  are  our  earliest  years. — Cowper. 

To  earn  her  aid,  with  fix'd  and  anxious  eye. 

He  looks  on  nature's  [ — ]  and  on  fortune's  course ; 

Too  much  in  vain. — Akenside. 

True  dignity  is  his,  whose  tranquil  mind 

Virtue  has  rais'd  above  the  things  [ — ]  below ; 

Who,  ev'ry  hope  and  [ — ]  fear  to  Heav'n  resign'd, 

Shrinks  not,  though  Fortune  aim  her  deadliest  blow. — Beattie. 

For  longer  in  that  paradise  to  dwell, 

The  law  [ — ]  I  gave  to  nature,  him  forbids. — Milton. 

So  little  mercy  shows  [ — ]  who  needs  so  much. —  Cowper. 

Bliss  is  the  same  [ — ]  in  subject,  as  [ — ]  in  king; 

In  [ — ]  who  obtain  defence,  and  [ — ]  wlio  defend. — Pope. 

Man  made  for  kings !  those  optics  are  but  dim 

That  tell  you  so — say  rather,  they  [ — ]  for  him. —  Cowper, 

Man  may  dismiss  compassion  from  his  heart, 

But  God  will  never  [ ]. — Id. 


276  INSTITUTES   OF   ENGLISH   GRAMMAR.      [PART  IV. 

Mortals  whose  pleasures  are  their  only  care, 

First  wish  to  be  impos'd  on,  and  then  are  [ — ]. — Id. 

Vigour  [ — ]  from  toil,  from  trouble  patience  grows. — Beattie. 

Where  now  the  rill  melodious,  [ — ]  pure,  and  cool, 

And  meads,  ^yith  life,  and  mirth,  and  beauty  crown'd  ? — Id. 

How  dead  the  vegetable  kingdom  lies ! 

How  dumb  the  tuneful  [  ]  ! — Thomson. 

Self  love  and  Reason  to  one  end  aspire, 

Pain  [ — ]  their  aversion,  pleasure  [ — ]  their  desire; 

But  greedy  that  its  object  would  devour, 

This  [— ]  taste  the  honey,  and  not  wound  the  flower. — Pope. 

LESSON   IV. — FIGURES   OF   SYNTAX. 
FIGURE    II. PLEONASM. 

Accordinr/  to  their  deeds,  accordlncily  he  will  repay ;  fury  to 
his  adversaries,  recompense  to  his  enemies. — Bible. 

My  head  is  fdled  with  dew,  and  my  locks  with  the  drops  of 
the  night. — Solomon''s  Song,  v,  2. 

Thou  hast  chastised  me,  and  I  was  chastised,  as  a  bullocic  un- 
accustomed to  the  yoke  :  turn  thou  me,  and  I  shall  be  turned; 
for  thou  art  the  Lord  my  God. — Jer.,  xxxi,  18. 

Consider  the  lilies  of  the  field  how  they  grow. — Matt.,  vi,  28. 

He  that  glorieth,  let  hivi  glory  in  the  Lord. — 2  Cor.,  x,  17. 

He  too  is  witness,  noblest  of  the  train 

That  waits  on  man,  the  flight-performing  horse. —  Cowper. 

FIGURE    III. SYLLEPSIS. 

Thou  art  Simon  the  son  of  Jona :  thou  shalt  be  called 
Cephas ;'  which  is,  by  interpretation,  a  stone. — John,  i,  42. 

Thus  saith  the  Lord  of  hosts  :  '  Behold  I  will  break  the  bow 
of  jElam,  the  chief  of  their  might.' — Jer.,  xlix,  35. 

Behold  I  lay  in  Zion  a  stumhling-stoyie  and  roch  of  offence ; 
and  whosoever  believeth  on  him  shall  not  be  ashamed. — Bom.y 
ix,  33. 

Thus  Conscience  pleads  her  cause  within  the  breast, 
Though  long  rebell'd  against,  not  yet  suppress'd. —  Cowper. 

.  Knowledge  is  proud  that  he  has  learned  so  much ; 
Wisdom  is  humble  that  he  knows  no  more. — Id. 

For  those  the  race  of  Israel  oft  forsook 
Their  living  strength,  and  unfrequented  left 
Hiii  righteous  altar,  bowing  lowly  down 
To  bestial  gods. — Milton, 


CHAP,  v.]      PROSODY. — PARSING. — PRAXIS -IX.  277 

LESSON  V. — FIGURES   OF  SYNTAX. 
FIGURE    IV. ENALLAGE. 

Let  me  tell  you,  Cassius,  yoii  yourself 

Are  much  condemned  to  have  an  itching  palm, 

To  sell  and  mart  your  offices  for  gold.^ — Shakspeare. 

Come,  Philomelus  ;  let  us  ins(a?it  go, 

O'erturn  his  bow'rs,  and  lay  his  castle  low. — Thomson. 

Then  palaces  shall  rise;  the  joyful  son 

Shall  finish  what  the  short-lived  sire  begun. — Po/?e. 

Such  was  that  temple  built  by  Solomon, 

Than  whom  none  richer  reign'd  o'er  Israel. —  G.  Brown. 

He  spoke :  with  fatal  eagerness  we  bur7i, 

And  quii  the  shores,  undestin'd  to  return. — Bay. 

Still  as  he  pass'd,  the  nations  he  sublimes. — Thomson. 

Sometimes,  with  early  morn,  he  mounted  gay. — Id. 

FIGURE    V. HYPERBATON. 

Such  resting  found  the  sole  of  unblest  feet. — Milton. 
Yet,  though  successless,  will  the  toil  delight. — Thomson. 
Where,  'midst  the  changeful  scen'ry  ever  new, 
Fancy  a  thousand  wondrous /o^?^s  descries. — Beatlie. 

Yet  so  much  bounty  is  in  God,  such  grace, 
That  who  advance  his  glory,  not  their  own. 
Them  he  himself  to  glory  will  advance. — Milton. 

But  apt  the  mind  or  fancy  is  to  rove 
Uncheck'd,  and  of  her  roving  is  no  end. — Id. 

No  quick  reply  to  dubious  questions  make ; 
Suspense  and  caution  still  prevent  mistake. — Denham. 

LESSON  VI. — FIGURES   OF   RHETORIC. 
FIGURE    I. SIMILE. 

Human  greatness  is  short  and  transitory,  as  the  odour  of  in- 
cense in  the  fire. — Dr.  Johnson. 

Terrestrial  happiness  is  of  short  continuance  :  the  brightness 
of  the  flame  is  wasting  its  fuel,  the  fragrant  flower  is  passing 
away  in  its  own  odours. — Id. 

Thy  nod  is  as  the  earthquake  that  shakes  the  mountains;  and 
thy  smile,  as  the  dawn  of  the  vernal  day. — Id. 

Plants  rais''d  with  tenderness  are  seldom  strong  ^ 
Man's  coltish  disposition  asks  the  thong ; 
And  without  discipline,  the  flxv'rite  child. 
Like  a  neglected  forester,  runs  wild. —  Cowper, 

21 


278              INSTITUTES   OF   ENGLISH   GKAMMAK.      [PART  IV. 
FIGURE    II. METAPHOR. 

Cathmon,  thy  name  is  a  pleasant  gale. — Ossian. 

Rolled  into  himself  he  flew,  wide  on  the  bosom  of  winds. 
The  old  oak  felt  his  departure,  and  shook  its  whistling  head. — Id. 

Carazan  gradually  lost  the  inclination  to  do  good,  as  he  ac- 
quired the  power ;  and  as  the  ha7id  of  time  scattered  snow  upon 
his  head,  the  freezing  influence  extended  to  his  bosom. — 
Haiokesworth. 

The  sun  grew  weary  of  gilding  the  palaces  of  Morad ;  the 
clouds  of  sorrow  gathered  round  his  head ;  and  the  tempest  of 
hatred  roared  about  his  dwelling. — Dr.  Johnson. 

The  tree  of  knowledge,  blasted  by  disputes, 
Produces  sapless  leaves  in  stead  of  fruits. — Denham. 

LESSON  VII. — FIGURES   OF   RHETORIC. 

FIGURE    III. ALLEGORY. 

"  But  what  think  ye  ? — A  certain  man  had  two  sons  ;  and 
he  came  to  the  first,  and  said,  '  Son,  go  work  to-day  in  my  vine- 
yard.' He  answered  and  said,  'I  will  not:'  but  afterward  he 
repented,  and  went.  And  he  came  to  the  second,  and  said 
likewise.  And  he  answered  and  said,  '  I  go,  sir :'  and  went 
not.  Whether  of  them  twain  did  the  will  of  his  father?" 
They  say  unto  him,  "  The  first." — Matt.,  xxi,  28. 

FIGURE    IV. METONYMY. 

Swifter  than  a  whirlwind,  flies  the  leaden  death. — Hervey. 

'Be  all  the  dead  forgot,'  said  Foldath's  bursting  wrath. 
'Did  not  I  fail  in  the  field  V — Ossian. 

Their /wrroztf  oft  the  stubborn  glebe  has  broke. — Qray. 

Firm  in  his  love,  resistless  in  his  hate, 

His  arm  is  conquest,  and  his  frown  is,  fate. — Day. 

At  length  the  world,  renew'd  by  calm  repose. 

Was  strong  for  toil ;  the  dappled  morn  arose. — Parnell. 

What  modes  of  sight  betwixt  each  wide  extreme, 

The  mole's  dim  curtain  and  the  lynx's  beam  ! 

Of  hearing,  from  the  life  that  fills  the  flood. 

To  that  which  warbles  through  the  vernal  wood ! — Pope. 

FIGURE    V. SYNECDOCHE. 

'Twas  then  his  threshold  first  receiv'd  a  ^nest.— -Parnell. 

For  yet  by  swains  alone  the  world  he  knew, 

Whose /ee^  came  wand'ring  o'er  the  nightly  dew. — Id. 


CHAP,  v.]      PROSODY. — PAKSING. — PRAXIS  IX.  279 

Flush'd  by  the  spirit  of  the  genial  year, 

Now  from  the  virgin's  cheek  a  fresher  bloom 

Shoots,  less  and  less,  the  live  carnation  round. —  Thomson. 

LESSON  VIII. — FIGURES   OF   RHETORIC. 
FIGURE    VI. — HYPERBOLE. 

I  saw  their  chief,  tall  as  a  rock  of  ice ;  his  spear,  the  blasted 
fir ;  his  shield,  the  rising  moon ;  he  sat  on  the  shore,  like  a 
cloud  of  mist  on  the  hill. — Ossian. 

At  which  the  universal  host  up  sent 
A  shout  that  tore  Hell's  concave,  and  beyond 
Frighted  the  reign  of  Chaos  and  old  Night. — Milton. 
Will  all  great  Neptune's  ocean  wash  this  blood 
Clean  from  my  hand  ?  No ;  this  my  hand  will  rather 
The  multitudinous  seas  incarnadine. 
Making  the  green  one  red. — Shakspeare. 
Endless  tears  flow  down  in  streams. — Swift. 

FIGURE    VII. VISION. 

How  mighty  is  their  defence  who  reverently  trust  in  the  arm 
of  God !  How  powerfully  do  they  contend  who  fight  with 
lawful  weapons !  Hark  !  'Tis  the  voice  of  eloquence,  pour- 
ing forth  the  living  energies  of  the  soul ;  pleading,  with  gener« 
ous  indignation,  the  cause  of  injured  humanity  against  lawless 
might,  and  reading  the  awful  destiny  that  awaits  the  oppres- 
sor ! — I  see  the  stern  countenance  of  despotism  overawed  !  I 
8ce  the  eye  fallen  that  kindled  the  elements  of  war !  I  see  the 
brow  relaxed  that  scowled  defiance  at  hostile  thousands !  I  see 
the  knees  tremble  that  trod  with  firmness  the  embattled  field ! 
Fear  has  entered  that  heart  which  ambition  had  betrayed  into 
violence  !  The  tyrant  feels  himself  a  man,  and  subject  to  the 
weakness  of  humanity  ! — Behold  !  and  tell  me,  is  that  power 
contemptible  which  can  thus  find  access  to  the  sternest  hearts  ? 
— G.  By-own. 

LESSON  IX. — FIGURES   OF   RHETORIC. 
FIGURE    VIII. APOSTROPHE. 

Yet  Still  they  breathe  destruction,  still  go  on 
Inhumanly  ingenious  to  find  out 
New  pains  for  life,  new  terrors  for  the  grave ; 
Artificers  of  death!     Still  monarchs  dream 
Of  universal  empire  growing  up 
From  universal  ruin.     Blast  the  design, 
Great  God  of  Hosts  f  nor  let  thy  creatures  fall 
Unpitied  victims  at  Ambiiioti's  shrine. — Porteus. 


280             INSTITUTES   OF  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR.     [PART  IV. 
FIGURE    IX. PERSONIFICATION. 

Hail,  sacred  Polity,  by  Freedom  rear'd ! 

Hail,  sacred  Freedom,  when  by  Law  restrain'd ! 

Without  you,  what  were  man'?     A  grov'ling  herd, 

In  darkness,  wretchedness,  and  want  enchain'd. — Beattie. 

Let  cheerful  Mcni'ry,  from  her  purest  cells, 
Lead  forth  a  goodly  train  of  Virtues  fair, 
Cherish'd  in  early  youth,  now  paying  back 
With  tenfold  usury  the  pious  care. — Porteus. 

FIGURE    X. EROTESIS. 

He  that  chastiseth  the  heathen,  shall  not  he  correct  ?  he  that 
teacheth  man  knowledge,  shall  not  he  know? — PsaL,  xciv,  10. 

Can  the  Ethiopian  change  his  skin,  or  the  leopard  his  spots  ? 
then  may  ye  also  do  good,  that  are  accustomed  to  do  evil. — 
Jeremiah,  xiii,  23. 

FIGURE    XI.— ECPHONESIS. 

O  that  my  head  were  waters,  and  mine  eyes  a  fountain  of 
tears,  that  I  might  weep  day  and  night  for  the  slain  of  the 
daughter  of  my  people !  O  that  I  had  in  the  wilderness  a 
lodging  place  of  way -faring  men,  that  I  might  leave  my  people, 
and  go  from  them ! — Jeremiah,  ix,  L 

LESSON  X. — FIGURES  OF   RHETORIC. 
FIGURE    XII. ANTITHESIS. 

On  this  side,  modesty  is  engaged ;  on  that,  impudence :  on 
this,  chastity ;  on  that,  lewdness :  on  this,  integrity ;  on  that, 
fraud  :  on  this,  piety  ;  on  that,  profaneness :  on  this,  constancy ; 
on  that,  fickleness  :  on  this,  honour ;  on  that,  baseness :  on  this, 
moderation;  on  that,  unbridled  passion. —  Cicero. 

She,  from  the  rending  earth,  and  bursting  skies, 
Saw  gods  descend,  and  fiends  infernal  rise ; 
Here  fix'd  the  dreadful,  there  the  blest  abodes ; 
Fear  made  her  devils,  and  weak  hope  her  gods. — Pope. 

FIGURE    XIII. CLIMAX. 

Virtuous  actions  are  necessarily  approved  by  the  awakened 
conscience  ;  and  when  they  are  approved,  they  are  commended 
to  practice  ;  and  when  they  are  practised,  they  become  easy  ; 
and  when  they  become  easy,  they  afford  pleasure ;  and  when 
they  afford  pleasure,  they  are  done  frequently ;  and  when  they 
are  done  frequently,  they  are  confirmed  by  habit :  and  con- 
firmed habit  is  a  kind  of  second  nature. 


CHAP.  VI.]  PROSODY. — QUESTIONS.  281 

FIGURE    XIV. IRONY. 

And  it  came  to  pass  at  noon,  that  Elijah  mocked  them,  and 
said,  '  Cry  aloud ;  for  ho  is  a  god  :  cither  he  is  talking,  or  lio 
is  pursuing,  or  he  is  in  [on]  a  journey,  or  peradventure  ho 
sleepeth,  and  must  be  awaked  !' — 1  Kings,  xviii,  27. 

Some  lead  a  life  unblamable  and  just, 
Their  own  dear  virtue  their  unshaken  trust; 
They  never  sin — or  if  (as  all  offend) 
Some  trivial  slips  their  daily  walk  attend, 
The  poor  are  near  at  hand,  the  charge  is  small, 
A  slight  gratuity  atones  for  all. — Coioper. 


CHAPTER  YI.— EXAMmATIOK 
QUESTIONS  ON  PKOSODY. 

LESSON   I. — rUNCTUATIOX. 

Of  what  does  Prosody  treat  ? 

Wliat  is  Punctuation  ? 

Wliat  are  principal  points,  or  marks  ? 

What  pauses  are  denoted  by  the  first  four  points  ? 

What  pauses  are  required  by  the  other  four  ? 

What  is  the  general  use  of  the  conniia  ? 

How  many  rules  for  the  comma  are  there  ?  and  what  are  their  heads  ? 

What  says  Eule  1st  of  simple  sentencc'-i? — Knle  2d  of  simple  members? — Kule 
8d  of  m^re  than  two  words? — Kule  4th  of  only  tioo  words ? — Kule  5th  of 
words  in  pairs? — Kule  Cth  of  words  put  absolule? — Rule  7th  of  words  in  ap- 
position?— Kule  8th  of  adjectives  ?—'Rn\c,  9th  of  finite  verbs? — Rule  10th  of 
infinitives?—Rn\Q  l\th  of  participles  ? — Kule  12th  of  adverbs  ? — Rule  18th 
ot'  conjunctions? — Rule  14th  of  prepositions  ? — Rule  15th  of  interjections  ?  -- 
Rule  ieth  of  words  r  peated? — ^Rule  17th  of  dependent  quotations? 

LESSON   II. — PUNCTUATION. 

How  many  .ind  what  exceptions  are  there  to  Rule  1st  for  the  comma?— to 
Rule  2d  ?— to  Rule  8d  ?— to  Rule  4th  ?— to  Rule  5th  ?— to  Rule  6th  ?— to 
Rule  7th  ?—t.o  Rule  8th?— to  Rule  9th  ?— to  Kule  10th?— to  Rule  11th?- 
to  Rule  12th  ?— to  Rule  13th  ?— to  Eule  14th  ^— to  Rule  15th  ?— to  Taile 
Ifith?— toRule  17? 

Whoa  are  different  words  said  to  be  in  the  same  constructiou  ? 

LESSON   HI. — PUNCTUATION. 

Wliat  is  the  general  use  of  the  semicolon  ? 

IIow  many  rules  are  there  for  the  semicolon  ?  and  what  are  their  heads  ? 

Wliat  says  Rule  1st  of  compoiind  members? — Rule  2d  of  simple  members? — 

Rule  3d  of  'Words  in  apposition  ? 
AVliat  is  the  general  nsa  of  the  colon  ? 

IIow  many  rules  are  there  for  the  colon?  and  what  are  their  heads  ? 
What  says  Rule  1st  of  additional  remarks? — Rule  1^  of  greater  pauses? — 

Rule  3d  of  independent  quotations? 
What  is  the  general  use  of  the  period  ? 

How  many  rules  are  there  for  the  period?  and  wliat  are  their  heads? 
What  says  Kule  1st  of  distinct  sentences? — Kule  2ii  of  allied  sei»-tences? — Rule 

8d  of  abbreviations  ? 

24* 


282  INSTITUTES   OF  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR.     [PART  IV. 

LESSON  rv. — PUNCTUATION. 

"What  is  the  use  of  the  dash? 

How  many  rules  are  there  for  the  dash  ?  and  what  are  their  heads  ? 

What  says  Rule  1st  of  abn/jpt  pauses  i^ — Rule  2d  of  emphatic  pauses  ? — Rule 

3d  of  faulty  dashes  ? 
What  is  the  use  of  the  eroteme,  or  note  of  interrogation  ? 
How  many  rules  are  there  for  it  ?  and  what  are  their  heads  ? 
What  says  Rule  1st  of  questions  direct? — Rule  2d  of  questions  united? — Rule 

3d  of  questions  indirect  P 
What  is  the  use  of  the  ecphonemo,  or  note  of  exclamation  ? 
How  many  rules  are  there  for  it?  and  what  are  their  heads?  ■ 
What  says  Rule  1st  of  interjections  ? — Rule  2d  of  invocations? — Rule  8d  of 

exclamatory  questions  ? 

LESSON   V. — PUNCTUATION. 

What  IS  the  use  of  the  curves,  or  marks  of  parenthesis? 
How  many  rules  are  there  for  them  ?  and  what  are  their  heads  ? 
What  says  Rule  Ist  of  the  parenthesis  ? — Rule  26.  of  included  points  f 
What  is  said  about  other  marks  ? 

What  is  the  use  of  the  apostrophe  ? — of  the  hyphen  ? — of  the  diasresis? — of 
tlie  acute  accent  ? — of  the  grave  accent  ? — of  the  circumflex  ? — of  the  breve  ? 
— of  the  macron? — of  the  ellipsis? — of  the  caret? — of  the  brace? — of  the 
section  ? — of  the  paragraph  ? — of  the  quotation  points  ? — of  the  crotchets  ? — 
of  the  index  ? — of  the  asterisk,  the  obelisk,  the  double  dagger,  and  the 
parallels  ? — of  the  asterism  ? — of  the  cedilla  ? 

[Having  correctly  answered  the  foregoina:  questions,  the  pupil  should  be  taught  to 
apply  wliat  lie  has  leanied ;  and,  for  this  purpose,  ho  may  be  required  to  read  the  pre- 
face to  this  volume,  or  a  portion  of  any  other  accurately  pointed  book,  and  to  assign 
a  reason  lor  every  mark  he  finds.] 

LESSON  TI. — riTERANCE. 

What  is  Utterance  f  and  what  does  it  include  ? 

What  is  pronunciation? — What  does  pronunciation  require? 

What  are  the  just  powers  of  the  letters  ? 

What  is  accent  ? — Is  every  word  accented  ? 

Can  a  word  have  more  than  one  accent  ? 

What  four  things  distinguish  the  elegant  speaker  ? 

AVha-t  is  elocution? — What  does  elocution  require? — What  is  emphasis? 

What  are  pauses?  and  what  is  said  of  their  duration? 

What  are  mtlections? — What  is  called  the  rising  inflection? — What  is  called 

the  falling  inflection  ? — How  are  these  inflections  exemplified  ? — How  are 

they  used  in  asking  questions  ? 
What  are  tones  ?  and  why  do  they  deserve  particular  attention  ? 

LESSON  VII. — FIGURES. 

What  is  a  Figure  in  grammar  ? — How  many  kinds  of  figures  are  there  ? 

What  is  a  figure  of  orthography  ? — Name  the  figures  of  this  kind. 

What  is  mimesis  ?— What  is  an  archaism  ? 

What  is  a  figure  of  etymology? 

How  many  and  what  are  the' figures  of  etymology? 

What  is  aphseresis  ? — prosthesis  ? — syncope  ?— apocope  ? — paragoge  ? — diffire- 
sis  ?— syuseresis  ? — tmesis  ? 

What  is  a  figure  of  syntax  ? — How  many  and  what  are  the  figures  of  syntax  ? 

What  is  ellipsis  in  grammar  ?     Are  sentences  often  elliptical  ? 

How  can  there  be  an  ellipsis  of  the  article  ? — the  noun  ? — the  adjective  ? — the 
pronoun? — the  verb? — the  participle? — the  adverb? — the  conjunction? — 
the  preposition  ? — the  interjection  ? — a  phrase  or  clause  ? 

What  is  pleonasm? — and  when  is  this  figure  allowable  ? 

What  is  syllepsis  ? — enallage  ?— hyperbaton  ? — what  is  said  of  hyberbaton  ? 

LESSON  Vra. — EIGUEES. 

T^hat  is  a  figure  of  rhetoric? — What  name  have  some  such  figures? 


CHAP.  VII.]  PROSODY. — EXERCISES.  283 

Do  figures  of  rhctorio  often  occur?— On  what  arc  they  founded? 

How  many  and  what  arc  the  principal  figures  of  rhetoric? 

What  is  a  simile  ?— a  metaphor? — an  allegory? — a  metonymy? — synecdoche? 

— hyperbole  i —  vision  ?  —  apostrophe  i  —  personification  ?  —  erotesis  ? — eo- 

phonesis  ?— antithesis  ? — climax  ? — irony  ? 

LESSON   IX.— VERSIFICATION. 

What  is  Versification  ? — What  is  the  quantity  of  a  syllable  ? 

How  is  quantity  denominated  ? — How  is  it  said  to  be  proportioned  ? 

On  what  does  quantity  depend  'i    and  what  sounds  are  the  most  easily 

lengthened  ? 
What  words  are  variable  in  quantity?  and  what  syllables  are  fixed  ? 
What  is  rhyme  ? — ^What  is  blank  verse  ? 

Of  what  does  a  line  of  poetry  consist  ? — Of  what  does  afoot  consist? 
What  are  the  principal  English  feet  ? 
What  is  an  iambus  ? — a  trochee  ? — an  anapest  ? — a  ductyl? 
How  many  kinds  of  verse  have  we  i 
What  is  scanning,  or  scansion  ? 

LESSON  X. — VEBSiriCATION. 

What  syllables  are  accented  in  an  iambic  line  ? 
What  are  the  several  measures  of  iambic  verse  ? 
What  syllables  are  accented  in  a  trochaic  line? 
What  are  the  several  measures  of  trochaic  verse  ? 
What  syllables  are  accented  in  an  anapestic  line  ? 
What  are  the  several  measures  of  anapestic  verse  ? 
What  syllables  are  aeceated  in  a  dactylic  line  ? 
What  are  the  several  measures  of  dactylic  verse  ? 

[Now  parse  the  ten  lessons  of  Vaa  Eighth  Praxis  ;  explaining  every  thing  of  which 
the  teacher  may  demand  an  explanation.] 


CHAPTER  YII.— FOE  WEITING. 

EXERCISES  IN  PROSOD  F. 

IWhcn  the  pupil  can  readily  answer  all  (lie  questions  on  Prosody,  and  apply 
the  rules  of  punctiiatioii  to  any  composition  in  which  the  points  aie  ri^rhtly  inserted 
he  should  write  out  the  following  exercises,  supplying  what  is  required.] 

EXERCISE  I.— PUNCTUATION. 

Copy  the  following  sentences,  and  insert  the  comma  where  it  ii 

requisite. 

Examples  under  Rule  1. 
The  dogmatist's  assurance  is  paramount  to  argument. 
The  whole  course  of  his  argumentation  comes  to  nothing. 
The  fieldmouse  builds  her  garner  under  ground. 
Exc.  The  first  principles  of  almost  all  sciences  are  few. 
What  he  gave  me  to  publish  was  but  a  small  part. 
To  remain  insensible  to  such  provocation  is  apathy. 
Minds  ashamed  of  poverty  would  be  proud  of  affluence. 

Under  Rule  2. 

I  was  eyes  to  the  blind  and  feet  was  I  to  the  lame. 
They  are  gone  but  the  remembrance  of  them  is  sweet. 


284  INSTITUTES  OF  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.     [PART  IV. 

He  has  passed  it  is  likely  through  varieties  of  fortune. 
The  mind  though  free  has  a  governor  Avithin  itself. 
They  I  doubt  not  oppose  the  bill  on  public  principles. 
Be  silent  be  grateful  and  adore. 

lie  is  an  adept  in  language  ^vho  always  speaks  the  truth. 
The  race  is  not  to  the  swift  nor  the  battle  to  the  strong. 
Exc.  1.  He  that  has  far  to  go  should  not  hurry. 
Hobbes  believed  the  eternal  truths  which  he  opposed. 
Feeble  are  all  pleasures  in  which  the  heart  has  no  share. 
Exc.  2.  A  good  name  is  better  than  precious  ointment. 
Thinkst  thou   that  duty  shall  have  dread  to  speak? 
The  spleen  is  seldom  felt  were  Flora  reigns. 

Under  Rule  3. 
The  city  army  court  espouse  my  cause. 
Wars  pestilences  and  diseases  are  terrible  instructors. 
Walk  daily  in  a  pleasant  airy  and  umbrageous  garden. 
Wit  spirits  faculties  but  make  it  worse. 
Men  wives  and  children  stare  crv  out  and  run. 

Under  Rule  4. 
Hope  and  fear  are  essentials  in  religion. 
Praise  and  adoration  are  perfective  of  our  souls. 
We  know  bodies  and  their  properties  most  perfectly. 
Satisfy  yourselves  with  what  is  rational  and  attainable. 
Exc  1.  God  will  rather  look  to  the  inward  motions  of  the 

mind  than  to  the  outward  form  of  the  body. 
Gentleness  is  unassuming  in  opinion  and  temperate  in  zeal. 
Exc.  2.  He  has  experienced  prosperity  and  adversity. 
All  sin  essentially  is  and  must  be  mortal. 
Exc.  3.  One  person  is  chosen  chairman  or  moderator. 
Duration  or  time  is  measured  by  motion. 
The  governor  or  viceroy  is  chosen  annually. 
Exc.  4.  Reflection  reason  still  the  ties  improve. 
His  neat  plain  parlour  Avants  our  modern  style. 

Under  Rule  5. 
I  inquired  and  rejected  consulted  and  deliberated. 
Seed-time  and  harvest  cold  and  heat  summer  and  winter  day 
and  night  shall  not  cease. 

EXERCISE  II.— PUNCTUATION. 

Copy  the  following  sentences,  and  insert  the  comma  where  it  is 

requisite. 

Under  Rule  6. 
The  night  being  dark  they  did  not  proceed. 


CHAP.  VII.]  PROSODY. — EXERCISES.  285 

There  being  no  other  coach  we  had  no  alternative. 
Remember  my  son  that  human  lite  is  the  journey  of  a  day. 
All  circutristances  considered  it  seems  right. 
He  that  overcometh  to  him  will  I  give  power. 
Your  land  strangers  devour  it  in  your  presence. 
Ah  sinful  nation  a  people  laden  with  iniquity ! 

With  heads  declin'd  ye  cedars  homage  pay  ; 

Be  smooth  ye  rocks  ye  rapid  floods  give  way  ! 

Under  Rule  7. 

Now  Philomel  sweet  songstress  charms  the  night. 

'Tis  chanticleer  the  shepherd's  clock  announcing  day. 

The  evening  star  love's  harbinger  appears. 

The  queen  of  night  fair  Dian  smiles  serene. 

There  is  yet  one  man  Micaiah  the  son  of  Imlah. 

Our  whole  company  man  by  man  ventured  down. 

As  a  work  of  wit  the  Dunciad  has  few  equals. 
In  the  same  temple  the  resounding  wood 
All  vocal  beings  hymned  their  equal  God. 

Sxc.  1,  The  last  king  of  Rome  was  Tarquinius  Superbus, 

Bossuet  highly  eulogizes  Maria  Theresa  of  Austria. 

Exc.  2.  For  he  went  and  dwelt  by  the  brook  Cherith. 

Remember  the  example  of  the  patriarch  Joseph. 

Exc.  3.  I  wisdom  dwell  with  prudence. 

Ye  fools  be  ye  of  an  understanding  heart. 

I  tell  you  that  which  you  yourselves  do  know. 

Exc.  4,  1  crown  thee  king  of  intimate  delights. 

1  count  the  world  a  sti'anger  for  thy  sake. 

And  this  makes  friends  such  miracles  below. 

God  has  pronounced  it  death  to  taste  that  tree. 

Grace  makes  the  slave  a  freeman. 

Under  Rule  8. 
Deaf  with  the  noise  I  took  my  hasty  flight. 
Him  piteous  of  his  youth  soft  disengage. 
I  played  a  while  obedient  to  the  fair. 
Love  free  as  air  spreads  his  light  wings  and  flies. 

Then  active  still  and  unconfined  his  mind 

Explores  the  vast  extent  of  ages  past. 

But  there  is  yet  a  liberty  unsung 

By  poets  and  by  senators  unpraised. 
Exc.  I  will  marry  a  wife  beautiful  as  the  Houries. 
He  was  a  man  able  to  speak  upon  doubtful  questions 
These  are  the  persons  anxious  for  the  change. 
Are  they  men  worthy  of  confidence  and  support"? 


286  INSTITUTES   OF  ENGLISH   GRAMMAK.     [PABT  IV. 

Under  Rule  9. 
Poverty  wants  some  things — avarice  all  things. 
Honesty  has  one  face — flattery  two. 
One  king  is  too  soft  and  easy — an  other  too  fiery. 
Mankind's  esteem  they  court — and  he  his  own : 
Theirs  the  wild  chase  of  false  felicities ; 
His  the  compos'd  possession  of  the  true. 

EXERCISE  III.— PUNCTUATION. 

Copy  the  following  sentences,  and  insert  the  comma  where  it  is 

requisite. 

Under  Rule  10. 

My  desire  is  to  live  in  peace. 

The  great  difficulty  was  to  compel  them  to  pay  their  debts. 

To  strengthen  our  virtue  God  bids  us  trust  in  him. 

I  made  no  bargain  with  you  to  live  always  drudging. 

To  sum  up  all  her  tongue  confessed  the  shrew. 

To  proceed  my  own  adventure  was  still  more  laughable. 
We  come  not  with  design  of  wasteful  prey 
To  drive  the  country  force  the  swains  away. 

Under  Rule  11. 

Having  given  this  answer  he  departed. 

Some  sunk  to  beasts  find  pleasure  end  in  pain. 

Eased  of  her  load  subjection  grows  more  light. 

Death  still  draws  nearer  never  seeming  near. 

He  lies  full  low  gored  with  wounds  and  weltering  in  his  blood. 

Kind  is  fell  Lucifer  compared  to  thee. 

Man  considered  in  himself  is  helpless  and  wretched. 

Like  scattered  down  by  howling  Eurus  blown. 

Lie  with  wide  nostrils  snorting  skims  the  wave. 

Youth  is  properly  speaking  introductory  to  manhood. 

Exc.  He  kept  his  eye  fixed  on  the  country  before  him. 
They  have  their  part  assigned  them  to  act. 
Years  will  not  repair  the  injuries  done  by  him. 

Under  Rule  12. 

Yes  we  both  were  philosophers. 

However  providence  saw  fit  to  cross  our  design. 

Besides  I  know  that  the  eye  of  the  public  is  upon  me. 

The  fact  certainly  is  much  otherwise. 

For  nothing  surely  can  be  more  inconsistent. 

Under  Rule  13. 
For  in  such  retirement  the  soul  is  strengthened. 


CHAP.  VII.]  PROSODY. — EXERCISES.  287 

It  engages  our  desires ;  and  in  some  degree  satisfies  them. 
But  of  every  Christian  A'irtue  piety  is  an  essential  part. 
The  English  verb  is  variable ;  as  love  lovest  loves. 

Under  Rule  14. 

In  a  word  charity  is  the  soul  of  social  life. 

By  the  bowstring  I  can  repress  violence  and  fraud. 

Some  by  being  too  artful  forfeit  the  reputation  of  probity. 

With  regard  to  morality  I  was  not  indifferent. 

Under  Rule  15. 
Lo  earth  receives  him  from  the  bending  skies  ! 
Behold  I  am  against  thee  O  inhabitant  of  the  valley  I 

Under  Rule  16. 

I  would  never  consent  never  never  never. 
His  teeth  did  chatter  chatter  chatter  still. 
Come  come  come  come — to  bed  to  bed  to  bed. 

Under  Rule  17. 

He  cried  '  Cause  eveiy  man  to  go  out  from  me.' 
'Almet'  said  he  'remember  what  thou  hast  seen.' 
I  answered  '  Mock  not  thy  servant  who  is  but  a  worm  before 
thee.' 

EXERCISE  IV.— PUNCTUATION. 

1.    Copy  the  following  sentences,  and  insert  the  comma  mid  the 
SEMICOLON  where  they  are  requisite. 

Under  Rule  1. 

'  Man  is  weak'  answered  his  companion  '  knowledge  is  more 

than  equivalent  to  force.' 
To  judge  rightly  of  the  present  we  must  oppose  it  to  the  past 
for  all  judgment  is  comparative  and  of  the  future  nothing 
can  be  known. 
*  Content  is  natural  wealth'  says  Socrates  to  which  I  shall  add 
'  luxury  is  artificial  poverty.' 

Converse  and  love  mankind  might  strongly  draw 
When  love  was  liberty  and  nature  Jaw. 

Under  Rule  2. 
Be  wise  to-day  'tis  madness  to  defer. 
Tlae  present  all  their  care  the  future  his. 
Wit  makes  an  enterpriser  sense  a  man. 
Ask  thought  for  joy  grow  rich  and  hoard  within. 
Song  soothes  our  pains  and  age  has  pains  to  soothe. 
Here  an  enemy  encounters  there  a  rival  supplants  him. 
Our  answer  to  their  reasons  is  No  to  their  scotTs  nothing. 


288  INSTITUTES   OF   ENGLISH  GRAMilAK.      [PART  IV. 

Under  Rule  3. 
In  Latin  there  are  six  cases  namely  the  nominative  the  genitive 

the  dative  the  accusative  the  vocative  and  the  ablative. 
Most  English  nouns  form  the  plural  by  adding  s  as  boy  boys 

nation  nations  king  kings  bay  bays. 
Bodies  are  such  as  are  endued  with  a  vegetable  soul  as  plants 

a  sensitive  soul  as  animals  or  a  rational  soul  as  the  body  of 

man. 

2.    Copy  the  following  sentences,  and  insert  the  comma,  the  semi- 
colon, and  the  colon  tuhere  they  are  requisite. 

Under  Rule  1. 
Death  wounds  to  cure  we  fall  we  rise  we  reign. 
Bliss  ! — there  is  none  but  unprecarious  bliss. 
That  is  the  gem  sell  all  and  purchase  that. 
Beware  of  usurpation  God  is  the  judge  of  all. 

Under  Rule  2. 
I  have  the  world  here  before  me  I  will  review  it  at  leisure 

surely  happiness  is  somewhere  to  be  found. 
A  melancholy  enthusiast  courts  persecution  and  when  he  can- 
not obtain  it  afflicts  himself  with  absurd  penances  but  the 
holiness  of  St.  Paul  consisted  in  the  simplicity  of  a  pious 
life. 

Observe  his  awful  portrait  and  admire 
Nor  stop  at  wonder  imitate  and  live. 

Under  Rxde  3. 

Such  is  our  Lord's  injunction  "  Watch  and  pray." 

He  died  praying  for  his   persecutors  "  Father  forgive  them 

they  know  not  what  they  do." 
On  his  cane  was  inscribed  this  motto  '•'■Festina  lente."" 

S.    Cojyy  the  following  sentences,  and  iiisert  the  comma,  the  semi- 
colon, the  colon,  and  the  period  where  they  are  requisite. 

Under  Rule  1. 

Then  appeared  the  sea  and  the  dry  land  the  mountains  rose 
and  the  rivers  flowed  the  sun  and  moon  began  their  course 
in  the  skies  herbs  and  plants  clothed  the  ground  the  air  the 
earth  and  the  waters  were  stored  with  their  respective  in- 
habitants at  last  man  was  made  in  the  image  of  God 

In  general  those  parents  have  most  reverence  who  most  deserve 
it  for  he  that  lives  well  cannot  be  despised 

Under  Rule  2. 
Civil  accomplishments  frequently  give  rise  to  fame  but  a  dis- 


CHAP.  VI I.J  .rnosoDY. — exercises,  289 

tinction  is  to  be  made  between  fame  and  true  honour  the 
statesman  the  orator  or  the  poet  may  be  famous  while  yet 
the  man  himself  is  far  from  being  honoured 

Under  Rule  3. 

Glass  was  invented  in  Eng  by  Benait  a  monk  A  D  6G4 
The  Roman  Era  U  C  commenced  A  C  1753  years 
Here  is  the  Literary  Life  of  S  T  Coleridge  Esq 

EXERCISE  v.— PUNCTUATION. 

1.  Copy  the  following  sentences,  and  insert  the  dash,  and  such 

other  points  as  are  necessary. 

Under  Rule  1. 

Tou  sAj  famo7(s  very  often  and  I  don't  know  exactly  what  it 

means  a  famous  uniform  famous  doings  What  does  famous 

mean 
O  why  famous  means  Now  don't  you  know  what /c(mo?/5  means 

It  means  It  is  a  word  that  people  say  It  is  the  fashion  to  say 

it  It  means  it  means  famous. 

Under  Rule  2. 

But  this  life  is  not  all  there  is  there  is  full  surely  an  other 
■  state  abidnig  us  And  if  there  is  what  is  thy  prospect  O  re- 
morseless obdurate  Thou  shalt  hear  it  would  be  thy  wisdom 
to  think  thou  now  hearest  the  sound  of  that  trumpet  which 
shall  awake  the  dead  Return  O  yet  return  to  the  Father 
of  mercies  and  live 

The  future  pleases  Why  The  present  pains 
But  that's  a  secret  yes  which  all  men  know 

2.  Copy  the  following  sentences.,  and  insert  the  note  of  inter- 

rogation, and  such  other  2Joints  as  are  necessary. 

Under  Rule  1. 

Does  nature  bear  a  tyrant's  breast 

Is  she  the  friend  of  stern  control 
Wears  she  the  despot's  purple  vest 

Or  fetters  she  the  free-born  soul 

Why  should  a  man  whose  blood  is  warm  within 
Sit  like  his  grandsire  cut  in  alabaster 

Who  art  thou  courteous  stranger  and  from  whence 
Why  roam  thy  steps  to  this  abandon'd  dale. 

13 


290  INSTITUTES  OF  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.     [PART  IV. 

Under  Rule  2. 

"Who  bid  the  stork  Columbus-like  explore 
Heavens  not  his  own  and  worlds  unknown  before 
Who  calls  the  council  states  the  certain  day 
Who  forms  the  phalanx  and  who  points  the  way 

Under  Rule  3. 

Ask  of  thy  mother  Earth  why  oaks  are  made 
Taller  and  stronger  than  the  weeds  they  shade 
They  asked  me  who  I  was  and  whither  I  was  going 

3.   Copy  the  following  sentences,  and  insert  the  note  of  excla- 
mation, and  such  other  points  as  are  necessary. 
Under  Rule  1. 
Alas  how  is  that  rugged  heart  forlorn 
Behold  the  victor  vanquish'd  by  the  worm 
Bliss  sublunary  bliss  proud  words  and  vain 

Under  Rule  2. 

O  Popular  Applause  what  heart  of  man 
Is  proof  against  thy  sweet  seducing  charms 
More  than  thy  balm  O  Gilead  heals  the  wound 

Under  Rule  3. 

How  often  have  I  loitered  o'er  thy  green 
Where  humble  happiness  endear'd  each  scene 
What  black  despair  what  horror  fills  his  heart 

4.    Copy  the  following  sentences,  and  insert  the  marks  of  par- 
enthesis, atid  such  other  points  as  are  necessary. 

Under  Rule  1. 

And  all  the  question  wrangle  e'er  so  long 
Is  only  this  If  God  has  placed  him  wrong 
And  who  what  God  foretells  who  speaks  in  things 
Still  louder  than  in  words  shall  dare  deny 

Under  Rule  2. 

Say  was  it  virtue  more  though  Heav'n  ne'er  gare 
Lamented  Digby  sunk  thee  to  the  grave 
Where  is  that  thrift  that  avarice  of  time 
O  glorious  avarice  thought  of  death  inspires 
And  oh  the  last  last  what  can  words  express 
Ttought  reach  the  last  last  silence  of  a  friend 


CHAP.  VII.]  PROSODY. — EXEPvCISES.  291 

EXERCISE  VI.— PUNCTUATION. 

Copyj  the  following  promiscuous  sentences,  and  insert  the  points 

which  theij  require. 

As  one  of  them  opened  his  sack  he  espied  his  money 

They  cried  out  the  more  exceedinffly  Crucify  him 

The  soldiers'  counsel  was  to  kill  the  prisoners 

Great  injury  these  vermin  mice  and  rats  do  in  the  field 

It  is  my  son's  coat  an  evil  beast  hath  devoured  him 

Peace  of  all  wordly  blessings  is  the  most  valuable 

By  this  time  the  very  foundation  was  removed 

The  only  words  he  uttered  were  I  am  a  Roman  citizen 

Some  distress  either  felt  or  feared  gnaws  like  a  worm 

How  then  must  I  determine  Have  I  no  interest  If  I  have  not  I 

am  stationed  here  to  no  purpose  Harris 
In  the  fire  the  destruction  was  so  swift  sudden  vast  and  miser. 

able  as  to  have  no  parallel  in  story 
Dionysius  the  tyrant  of  Sicily  was  far  from  being  happy 
I  ask  now  Verres  what  thou  hast  to  advance 
Excess  began  and  sloth  sustains  the  tra'de 
Fame  can  never  reconcile  a  man  to  a  death  bed 
They  that  sail  on  the  sea  tell  of  the  danger 
Be  doers  of  the  word  and  not  hearers  only 
The  storms  of  wint'ry  time  will  quickly  pass 
Here  hope  that  smiling  angel  stands 
Disguise  I  see  thou  art  a  wickedness 
There  are  no  tricks  in  plain  and  simple  faith. 
True  love  strikes  root  in  reason  passion's  foe 
Two  gods  divide  them  all  Pleasure  and  Gain 
I  am  satisfied  My  son  has  done  his  duty 
Remember  Almet  the  vision  which  thou  hast  seen 
I  beheld  an  enclosure  beautiful  as  the  gardens  of  paradise 
The  knowledge  which  I  have  received  I  will  communicate 
But  I  am  not  yet  happy  and  therefore  I  despair 
AVretched  mortals  said  I  to  what  purpose  are  you  busy 
Bad  as  the  world  is  respect  is  always  paid  to  virtue 
In  a  word  he  views  men  in  the  clear  sunshine  of  charity 
This  being  the  case  I  am  astonished  and  amazed 
These  men  approached  him  and  saluted  him  king 
Excellent  and  obliging  sages  these  undoubtedly 
Yet  at  the  same  time  the  man  himself  undergoes  a  change 
One  constant  effect  of  idleness  is  to  nourish  the  passions 
You  heroes  regard  nothing  but  glory 
Take  care  lest  while  you  strive  to  reach  the  top  you  fall 
Proud  and  presumptuous  they  can  brook  no  opposition 


292  INSTITUTES   OF   ENGLISH   GRAMMAR,      [PART  IV. 

Nay  some  awe  of  religion  may  still  subsist 

Then  said  he  Lo  I  come  to  do  thy  will  O  God 

As  for  me  behold  I  am  in  your  hand 

Now  I  Paul  myself  beseech  you 

He  who  lives  always  in  public  cannot  live  to  his  own  soul 

whereas  he  who  retires  remains  calm 
Therefore  behold  I  even  I  will  utterly  forget  you 
This  text  speaks  only  of  those  to  whom  it  speaks 
Yea  he  warmeth  himself  and  saith  Aha  I  am  warm 
King  Agrippa  believest  thou  the  prophets 

EXERCISE  VII.— PUNCTUATION. 

Copy  the  following  promiscuous  sentences^  and  insert  the  points 

which  they  require. 

To  whom  can  riches  give  repute  or  trust 

Content  or  pleasure  but  the  good  and  just  Poi>e 

To  him  no  high  no  low  no  great  no  small 

He  fills  he  bounds  connects  and  equals  all  Id 

Reason's  whole  pleasure  all  the  joys  of  sense 

Lie  in  three  words  health  peace  and  competence  Id 

Not  so  for  once  indulg'd  they  sweep  the  main 

Deaf  to  the  call  or  hearing;  hear  in  vain  Anon 

Say  will  the  falcon  stooping  from  above 

Smit  with  her  varying  plumage  spare  the  dove  Pope 

Throw  Egypt's  by  and  offer  in  its  stead 
Offer  the  crown  on  Bernice's  head  Id 

Falsely  luxurious  will  not  man  awake 

And  springing  from  the  bed  of  sloth  enjoy 

The  cool  the  fragrant  and  the  silent  hour  Thomson 

Yet  thus  it  is  nor  otherwise  can  be 

So  far  from  aught  romantic  what  I  sing  Youi^fj 

Thyself  first  know  then  love  a  self  there  is 
Of  virtue  fond  that  kindles  at  her  charms  Id 

How  far  that  little  candle  throws  his  beams 

So  shines  a  good  deed  in  a  naughty  world  ShaJcspeare 

You  have  too  much  respect  upon  the  world 
They  lose  it  that  do  buy  it  with  much  care  Id 

How  many  things  by  season  season'd  are 
To  their  right  praise  and  true  perfection  Id 

Canst  thou  descend  from  converse  with  the  skies 
Ajftd  seize  thy  brother's  throat  for  what  a  clod  Young 


CHAP.  VII.]  PROSODY. — EXERCISES.  293 

In  two  short  precepts  all  your  business  lies 

Would  you  be  great  be  virtuous  and  be  wise  Denham 

But  sometimes  virtue  starves  while  vice  is  fed 

What  then  is  the  reward  of  virtue  bread  Pope 

A.  life  all  turbulence  and  noise  may  seem 

To  him  that  leads  it  wise  and  to  be  prais'd 

But  Avisdom  is  a  pearl  with  most  success 

Sought  in  still  waters  and  beneath  clear  skies  Cowper 

All  but  the  swellings  of  the  softened  heart 

Tiiat  waken  not  disturb  the  tranquil  mind  Thomson 

Inspiring  God  who  boundless  spirit  all 

And  unremitting  energy  pervades 

Adjusts  sustains  and  agitates  the  whole  Id 

Ye  ladies  for  indiff'rent  in  your  cause 

I  should  deserve  to  forfeit  all  applause 

Whatever  shocks  or  gives  the  least  offence 

To  virtue  delicacy  truth  or  sense 

Try  the  criterion  'tis  a  fliithful  guide 

Nor  has  nor  can  have  Scripture  on  its  side  Cowper 

EXERCISE  VIIL— SCANNING. 

Divide  the  following  verses  into  the  feet  which  compose  them,  and 
distinguish  by  marks  the  long  and  the  short  syllables. 

DEITY. 

Alone  thou  sitst  above  the  everlasting  hills, 
And  all  immensity  of  space  thy  presence  fills; 

For  thou  alone  art  God ; — as  God  thy  saints  adore  thee ; 

Jehovah  is  thy  name; — they  have  no  gods  before  thee. —  O.B^ 

HEALTH, 

Up  the  dewy  mountain,  Health  is  bounding  lightly ; 

On  her  brows  a  garland,  twin'd  with  richest  posies : 
Gay  is  she,  elate  with  hope,  and  smiling  sprightly; 

Kedder  is  her  cheek,  and  sweeter,  than  the  rose  is. — G.  B^ 

IMPENITENCE. 

Tlie  impenitent  sinner  v/hom  mercy  empowers, 
Dishonours  that  goodness  which  seeks  to  restore ; 

As  the  sands  of  the  desert  are  water'd  by  showers, 

Yet  barren  and  fi'uitless  remain  as  before. —  G.  Brown. 

PIETY. 

Holy  and  pure  are  the  pleasures  of  piety, 

Drawn  from  the  fountain  of  mercy  and  love; 

Endless,  exhaustless,  exempt  from  satiety, 

Rising  unearthly,  and  soaring  above. —  G.  Brown. 

25* 


294  INSTITUTES   OF   ENGLISH   GRAMMAR.     [PART  IV. 

A    SIMILE. 

The  bolt  that  strikes  the  tow'ring  cedar  dead, 

Oft  passes  harmless  o'er  the  hazel's  head.— 6^.  Brown. 

AN    OTHER. 

"  Yet  to  the  general's  voice  they  soon  obey'd 
Innumerable.     As  when  the  potent  rod 
Of  Araram's  son,  m  Egypt's  evil  day, 
Wav'd  round  the  coast,  up  call'd  a  pitchy  cloud 
Of  locusts,  warping  on  the  eastern  wind. 
That  o'er  the  realm  of  impious  Pharaoh  hung 
Like  night,  and  darken'd  all  the  land  of  Nile."— ilfi7to«. 

ELEGIAC    STANZA. 

Thy  name  is  dear — 'tis  virtue  balm'd  in  love ; 

Yet  e'en  thy  name  a  pensive  sadness  brings. 

Ah!  wo  the  day,  our  hearts  were  doom'd  to  prove, 

That  fondest  love  but  points  affliction's  stings! — G.  Brown. 

CUPID. 

Zephyrs,  moving  bland,  and  breathing  fragrant 

With  the  sweetest  odours  of  the  spring. 
O'er  the  winged  boy,  a  thoughtless  vagrant, 

Slumb'ring  in  the  grove,  their  perfumes  fling. —  G.  Brown, 

DIVINE    POWER. 

When  the  winds  o'er  Gennesaret  roar'd, 

And  the  billows  tremendously  rose, 
The  Saviour  but  utter'd  the  word. 

They  were  hush'd  to  the  calmest  repose. —  G.  Brown. 

INVITATION. 

Come  from  the  mount  of  the  leopard,  spouse, 

Ck)me  from  the  den  of  the  lion  ; 
Come  to  the  tent  of  thy  shepherd,  spouse. 

Come  to  the  mountain  of  Zion. —  G.  Brown. 

ADMONITION. 

In  the  days  of  thy  youth. 

Remember  thy  God : 
O  !  forsake  not  his  truth. 

Incur  not  his  rod. —  G.  Brown. 

COMMENDATION. 

Constant  and  duteous, 

Meek  as  the  dove, 
~How  art  thou  beauteous, 

Daughter  of  love  ! — G.  Brown. 


CHAP.  VII.]  PROSODy.™ EXERCISES.  295 

EDWIN,  AN  ODE. 

X.    STROPHE. 

Led  by  the  pow'r  of  song,  and  nature's  love, 
Which  raise  the  soul  all  vulgar  themes  abovej 
The  mountain  grove 
Would  Edwin  rove. 
In  pensive  mood,  alone  ; 
And  seek  the  woody  dell, 
Where  noontide  shadows  fell, 
Cheering, 
Veering, 
Mov'd  by  the  zephyr's  swell. 
Here  nurs'd  he  thoughts  to  genius  only  known, 
When  nought  was  heard  around 
But  sooth'd  the  rest  profound 
Of  rural  beauty  on  her  mountain  throne. 
Nor  less  he  lov'd  (rude  nature's  child) 
The  elemental  conflict  wild ; 
When,  fold  on  fold,  above  was  pil'd 
The  watery  swathe,  careering  on  the  wind. 
Such  scenes  he  saw 
With  solemn  awe, 
As  in  the  presence  of  th'  Eternal  Mind. 
Fix'd  he  gaz'd, 
Tranc'd  and  rais'd. 
Sublimely  rapt  in  awful  pleasure  undefin'd. 

II.    ANTISTROPHE. 

Reckless  of  dainty  joys,  he  finds  delight 
Where  feebler  souls  but  tremble  with  affright* 
Lo !  now,  within  the  deep  ravine, 
A  black  impending  cloud 
Infolds  him  in  its  shroud. 
And  dark  and  darker  glooms  the  scene. 
Through  the  thicket  streaming, 
Lightnings  now  are  gleaming ; 
Thunders  rolling  dread. 
Shake  the  mountain's  head ; 
Nature's  war 
Echoes  far. 
O'er  ether  borne. 
That  flash 
The  ash 
Has  scath'd  and  torn ! 


296 


INSTITUTES   OP  ENGLISH   GEAMMAE.     [PAKT  IV; 

Now  it  rages ; 
Oaks  of  ages, 
Writhing  in  the  furious  blast, 
Wide  their  leafy  honours  cast ; 
Their  gnarled  arms  do  force  to  force  oppose : 
Deep  rooted  in  the  crevic'd  rock, 
The  sturdy  trunk  sustauis  the  shock, 
Like  dauntless  hero  firm  against  assailing  foes. 

III.    EPODE. 

'  O  Thou  who  sits  above  these  vapours  dense, 
And  rul'st  the  storm  by  thine  omnipotence ! 
Making  the  eollied  cloud  thy  car, 
Coursing  the  winds,  thou  rid'st  afor. 
Thy  blessings  to  dispense. 
The  early  and  the  latter  rain, 
Which  fertilize  the  dusty  plain. 

Thy  bounteous  goodness  pours. 
Dumb  be  the  atheist  tongue  abhorr'd  ! 
All  nature  owns  thee,  sovereign  Lord ! 

And  works  thy  gracious  will; 
At  thy  command  the  tempest  roars, 
At  thy  command  is  still. 
Thy  mercy  o'er  this  scene  sublime  presides; 
'Tis  mercy  forms  the  veil  that  hides 
The  ardent  solar  beam  ; 
While,  from  the  volley'd  breast  of  heaven, 
Transient  gleams  of  dazzling  light. 
Flashing  on  the  balls  of  sight, 
Make  darkness  darker  seem. 
Thou  mov'st  the  quick  and  sulph'rous  leven — 
The  tempest-driven 
Cloud  is  riven ; 
And  the  thirsty  mountain-side 
Drinks  gladly  of  the  gushing  tide.' 
So  breath'd  young  Edwin,  when  the  summer  shower 
From  out  that  dark  o'erchamb'ring  cloud. 
With  lightning  flash  and  thunder  loud, 
Burst  in  wild  grandeur  o'er  his  solitary  bower. —  G.  Brown, 


XHE    END    OF    PART    FOURTH. 


KEY 

TO  THE 

EXAMPLES    OF  FALSE   CONSTRUCTION. 

DESIGNED   FOR   ORAL    EXERCISES, 

UNDER 

THE  RULES  OF  SYNTAX  AND  THE  NOTES. 


t^-*"  [The  examples  of  False  Syntax  here  explained,  Mionld  be  corrected  oraUy  \>j 
the  pupil,  according  to  the  fovmules  given  under  the  rules;  and  tlie  following  correc- 
tions may  afterwards  be  used  as  examples  for  parsing,  if  necessary.] 

UNDER   RULE   I,— ARTICLES. 

Under  Note  1. — An  or  A. 

Tliis  is  a  hard  sayinpr. 

All  luimlile  heart  shall  find  favour. 

Rassin?  from  an  earthly  to  a  heavenly  diadem. 

Few  have  the  happiness  of  living  with  such  a  one. 

She  evinced  a  uniform  adherence  to  the  truth. 

An  hospital  is  an  asylum  for  the  sick. 

Tliis  is  truly  a  wonderful  invention. 

Ho  is  a  younger  man  timn  we  supposed. 

A  humorsome  child  is  never  long  pleased. 

A  careless  man  is  unfit  for  an  hostler. 

Under  Note  2. — Nouns  Connected. 

Avoid  rude  sports :  an  eye  is  soon  lost,  or  a  bone  broken. 
As  the  drop  of  the  bucket,  and  the  dust  of  the  balance. 
Not  a  word  was  uttered,  nor  a  sign  given. 
I  despise  not  the  doer,  but  ilie  deed. 

Under  Note  3. — Adjectives  Connected. 

What  is  the  difference  between  the  old  and  the  new  method  ? 

The  sixth  and  the  tenth  have  a  close  resemblance. 

Is  Paris  on  the  right  hand,  or  the  left  ? 

Does  Peru  join  the  Atlantic,  or  tlie  Pacific  ocean  ? 

He  was  infiueuced  both  by  a  iust  and  a  generous  principle. 

The  book  was  read  by  the  old  and  the  young. 

I  have  both  the  large  and  the  small  grammar. 

Are  both  the  north  and  the  south  line  measured? 

Are  the  north  line  and  the  south  both  measured  ? 

Are  both  the  north  and  the  south  lines  measured? 

Are  both  the  north  lines  and  the  south  measured  ? 

Under  Note  4. — Adjectives  Connected, 

Is  the  north  and  south  line  measured  ? 

Are  the  two  north  and  south  hnes  both  measured? 

A  great  and  good  man  looks  beyond  time. 

13* 


298  INSTITUTES   OF  ENGLISH   GEAMMAR. 

They  made  but  a  weak  nnd  ineifectual  resistance.    _ 
The  Allegany  and  Monongahela  rivers  form  the  Ohio. 
I  rejoice  that  there  is  an  other  and  better  world. 
"Were  God  to  raise  np  an  other  such  man  as  Moses. 
The  light  and  worthless  kernels  will  float. 

Under  Note  Z.— Articles  not  Requisite. 

Cleon  was  an  other  sort  of  man. 

There  is  a  species  of  animal  called  seal. 

Let  us  wait  in  patience  and  ciuietness. 

The  contemplative  mind  delights  in  silence. 

Arithmetic  is  a  branch  of  mathematics. 

You  will  never  have  an  other  such  chance. 

I  expected  some  such  answer. 

And  1  persecuted  this  way  unto  death. 

Under  Note  ^.—  Of  Titles  and  Names. 

He  is  entitled  to  the  appellation  of  gentleman. 

Cromwell  assumed  the  title  of  Protector. 

Her  father  is  honoured  with  the  title  of  Earl. 

The  chief  magistrate  is  styled  President. 

The  highest  title  in  the  state  is  that  of  Governor. 

For  oak,  pine,  and  ash,  were  names  of  whole  classes  of  objects. 

Under  Note  l.—  Of  Comparisons. 

He  is  a  better  writer  than  reader. 

He  was  an  abler  mathematician  than  linguist. 

I  should  rather  have  an  orange  than  an  apple. 

Under  Note  8. — Nouns  with  Who  or  Which. 
The  words  (or,  Those  words)  which  are  signs  of  complex  ideas,  ara  liable  to  ba 

misunderstood. 
The  carriages  which  were  formerly  in  use,  were  very  chimsy. 
The  place  Is  not  mentioned  by  the  geographers  who  wi-ote  at  that  time. 

Under  Note  0. — Participial  Novns. 

Means  arc  always  necessary  to  the  accomplishing  of  ends. 

By  the  seeing  of  the  eye,  and  the  hearing  of  the  ear,  learn  wisdom. 

In  the  keeping  of  his  commandments,  there  is  great  reward. 

For  the  revealing  of  a  secret,  there  is  no  remedy. 

Have  you  no  repugnance  to  the  torturing  of  animals  ? 

Under  Note  10.— Participles,  not  Nouns. 

By  breaking  the  law,  you  dishonour  the  lawgiver. 
An  argument  so  weak"  is  not  worth  mentioning. 
In  letting  go  our  hope,  we  let  all  go. 
Avoid  talking  too  much  of  your  ancestors. 
The  cuckoo  keeps  repeating  her  unvaried  notes. 
Forbear  boasting  of  what  you  can  do. 

UNDER  RULE   II. — NOMINATIVES. 

JTe  that  is  studious,  will  improve.  _ 

They  that  seek  wisdom,  will  be  wise. 

She  and  /are  of  the  same  age. 

You  are  two  or  three  years  older  than  we^ 

Are  not  John  and  thou  cousins  ? 

I  can  write  as  handsomely  as  thou. 

Nobody  said  so  but  he. 

mu)  dost  thou  think  was  there  t 


KEY  TO   FALSE   SYNTAX. — APPOSITION. — ADJS.      299 

Who  brote  this  slate  ?    /. 

We  are  alone  ;  here's  none  but  thou  and  I. 

Them  that  honour  me,  I  will  honour ;  and  they  that  despise  me,  shall  be 

lightly  esteemed. — 1  Sam.,  ii,  30. 
He  who  in  that  instance  was  deceived,  is  a  man  of  sound  judgement. 

UNDER   RULE   III. — APPOSITION. 

The  book  is  a  present  from  my  brother  Richard,  kim  that  keeps  the  book- 
Btore. 

I  am  going  to  see  my  friends  in  the  country,  them  that  we  met  at  the  ferry. 

This  dress  was  made  by  Catharine,  the  milliner,  her  that  we  saw  at  work. 

Dennis,  the  gardener,  he  that  gave  me  the  tulips,  has  promised  me  a  piony. 
Resolve  me,  why  the  cottager  and  king, 
Jle  whom  sea-sever'd  realms  obey,  and  ^e 
AVho  steals  his  whole  dominion  from  the  waste, 
Repelling  winter  blasts  with  mud  and  straw. 
Disquieted  alike,  draw  sigh  for  sigh. —  Young. 

UNDER   RULE   IV. — ADJECTIVES. 

Under  Note  1. — Agreement. 

Things  oithis  sort  are  easily  understood. 

Who  broke  those  tongs  ? 

Where  did  I  drop  these  scissors  ? 

Bring  out  those  oats. 

Extinguish  those  embers. 

I  disregard  these  minutiae. 

That  kmd  of  injuries  we  need  not  fear. 

What  was  the  height  of  that  gallows  which  Haman  erected  f 

Under  Note  2. — Fixed  Numbers. 

We  rode  about  ten  miles  an  hour. 

'Tis  for  a  thousand  pounds. 

How  deep  is  the  water  ?    About  sis.  fathoms. 

The  lot  is  twenty-five/«ei;  wide. 

I  have  bought  eight  loads  of  wood. 

Under  Note  3. — Reciprocals. 

Two  negatives,  in  English,  destroy  each  otJier. — Lowth  cor. 

That  the  heathens  tolerated  one  an  other,  is  allowed. — Fuller  cr>r. 

David  and  Jonathan  loved  each  other  tenderly. 

Words  are  derived  one  from  an  other  in  various  ways.     Or  better :  Derivative 

words  O.XQ  formed  from  their  primitives  in  various  ways.— Cooper  cor. 
Teachers  like  to  see  their  pupils  polite  to  one  an  other. —  Webster  cor. 
The  Graces  always  hold  one  an  other  by  the  hand. 

Under  Note  ^. — Of  Degrees. 

He  chose  the  last  of  these  three. 

TrissyUables  are  often  accented  on  the  first  syllable. 

Which  are  the  two  mx)st  remarkable  isthmuses  in  the  world  ? 

Under  Note  5. — Of  Comparatives. 

The  Scriptures  are  more  valuable  than  any  other  writings. 

The  Russian  empire  is  more  extensive  than  any  other  government  in  the 

world. 
Israel  loved  Joseph  more  than  all  his  other  children,  because  he  was  the  sou 

of  his  old  age. 

Under  Note  6. — Of  Superlatives, 
Of  all  ill  habits  idleness  is  the  most  incorrigible. 


300  INSTITUTES   OF   ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

Eve  was  the  fairest  of  women. 

Hope  is  the  most  constant  of  all  the  passions. 

•  Unde?'  Note  7. — Of  Extra  Comparisons. 

That  opinion  is  too  general  (or  common)  to  be  easily  corrected. 
Virtue  confers  the  greatest  (or  highest)  dignity  iipou  man. 
How  much  better  are  ye  than  the  fowls  ! — Tr.  of  Luke  cor. 
Do  not  thou  hasten  above  the  Most  High. — Esdras  cor. 
This,  this  was  the  wikindest  cut  of  all. — Enfield.,  p.  853. 
The  waters  are  frozen  sooner  and  harder. —  yerstegan  cor. 
A  healthier  (or  more  healthy)  place  cannot  be  found. 
The  best  and  the  wisest  men  often  meet  with  discouragements. 

Under  Note  8. — Adjectives  Connected. 

He  showed  ns  an  easier  and  more  agreeable  way. 
This  was  the 2)lainest  and  7no'<t  convincing  argument. 
Some  of  the  wisest  and  most  moderate  of  the  senators. 
This  is  an  ancient  and  honourable  fraternity. 
There  vice  shall  meet  a  fatal  and  irrevoceible  doom. 

Under  Note  9. — Adjectives  Prejixed. 

He  is  an  industrious  young  man. 

She  has  an  elegant  new  house. 

HhQjirst  two  classes  have  read. 

The  two  oldest  sons  have  removed  to  the  westward. 

England  had  not  seen  an  other  such  king. 

Under  Note  10. — Of  AdJiCt'.cesfor  Adverbs, 

She  reads  well  and  writes  neatly. 

He  was  extremely  prodigal. 

They  went,  conformably  to  their  engagement. 

He  speaks  \&Yy  fiuenthj.,  and  reasons  justly. 

The  deepest  streams  run  the  most  silently. 

These  appear  to  be  finished  the  inost  neatly. 

He  was  scarcely  gone,  when  you  arrived. 

I  am  exceedingly  sorry  to  hear  of  your  misfortunes. 

The  work  was  uncommonly  well  executed. 

This  is  not  so  large  a  cargo  as  the  last. 

Thou  knowest  how  good  a  hoi'se  mine  is. 

I  cannot  think  so  meanly  of  him. 

He  acted  much  more  wisely  than  the  others. 

Under  Note  11.— Of  Them  for  Those. 

I  bought  those  books  at  a  very  low  price. 

Go  and  tell  those  boys  to  be  still. 

I  have  several  copies :  thou  art  welcome  to  those  two. 

"Which  oi those  three  men  is  the  most  useful? 

Under  Note  12.— Of  ITiis  ayid  TJiat. 

Hope  is  as  strong  an  incentive  to  action,  as  fear :  that  is  the  anticipation  of 

g'ood,  tMs  oiawW. 
The  poor  want  some  advantages  which  the  rich  enjoy ;  but  we  should  not 
therefore  account  these  happy,  and  those  miserable. 
Memory  and  forecast  just  returns  engage, 
Tliat  pointing  back  to  youth,  this  on  to  age. — Pope. 

Under  Note  13. — Each,  Every  One.,  <&c. 

Let  each  of  them  be  heard  in  his  turn. 

On  the  Lord's  day,  every  one  of  as  Christians  keeps  the  sabbath. 

/■*  eitlier  of  these  men  knov,ai? 

No :  neither  of  them  has  any  connexions  kcre. 


KEY  TO   FALSE   SYNTAX. — rilONOUNS.  301 

Under  Note  li.—Anj/  and  Avne. 


Did  any  of  the  company  stop  to  assist  you  ? 
Hero  are  six ;  but  none  of  tliem  will  answer. 


U7ider  Note  15.— Participial  Adjectives- 


Some  crimes  are  thought  deservhig  (-//death. 
Jiudeuesa  of  speech  ia  very  unbecoming  to  [or  in]  i 
To  eat  with  unwashed  hands,  was  tlisgusting  tu  a  Ji 


:i  gentleman. 
Jew. 

Leave  then  thy  joys,  unsuiting  to  such  age — or, 
Leave  then  thy  joys,  not  suiting  such  an  age, 
To  a  fresh  comer,  and  resign  tiio  stage. 

UNDER   RULE   V. — PRONOUNS. 

Every  one  must  judge  o?  his  own  fcelhigs. 

Can  any  person, 'on  his  entrance  into  the  world,  be  fully  secure  that  he  shall 

not  be  deceived  ? 
Ho  cannot  see  one  in  prosperity,  without  envying  kim. 
I  gave  him  oats,  but  lie  would  not  eat  thc?n. 
Rebecca  took  goodly  raiment,  and  put  it  on  Jacob. 
Take  up  the  tongs,  and  put  them  in  their  place. 
Let  eaeli  esteem  others  better  tiian  Idmse^f. 
A  person  may  make  Idmself  happy  without  riches. 
Every  man  should  try  to  iirovide  for  himself. 
The  mind  of  man  should  not  be  left  without  something  on  which  to  employ 

its  energies. 

An  idler  is  a  watch  that  wants  both  hands, 

As  useless  if  *(  goes,  as  when  it  stands. —  Cowper. 

Under  Note  1. —  Of  Pronouns  Needless. 

Many  words  darken  speech. 

These  praises  he  tlien  seemed  inclined  to  retract. 

These  people  are  all  very  ignorant. 

Asa's  heart  was  perfect  with  the  Lord. 

Who,  instead  of  going  about  doing  good,  are  perpetually  intent  upon  doing 

mischief. 
"Whom  ye  delivered  up,  and  denied  in  the  presence  of  Pontius  Pilate. 
Whom,  when  they  had  washed  her,  they  laid  in  an  upper  chambei-. 
There  are  witnesses  of  the  fact  wliicJi  I  have  mentioned. 
He  is  now  sorry  for  what  he  said. 

The  empress,  approving  these  conditions,  immediately  ratified  them. 
Though  this  incident  appears  improbable,  yet  I  cannot  doubt  the  author's 

veracity. 

Under  Note  2. —  Gf  Change  in  Number. 

Thou  art- my  fiither's  brother,  else  would  I  reprove  thee — or, 
You  are  my  father's  brother,  else  would  I  reprove  you. 
Your  weakness  is  excusable,  but  your  wickedness  is  not — or, 
'Thy  weakness  is  excusable,  but  thy  wickedness  ia  not. 
Ko'w,  my  son,  1  forgive  thee,  and  freely  pardon  thy  fault — or, 
Now,  my  son,  I  forgive  you,  and  freely  pardon  your  fault. 

You  draw  the  inspiring  breath  of  ancient  song. 
Till  nobly  rises  emulous  your  own — or, 
Thou  draivst  the  inspiring  breath  of  ancient  song, 
Till  nobly  rises  emulous  thy  own. 

Under  Note  Z.—  Of  Who  and  Which. 

This  is  the  horse  whieh  my  father  imported. 
Those  are  the  birds  wldch  we  call  gregarious. 
H-e  has  two  brothers,  one  of  whom  I  am  acquainted  with. 

26 


302  INSTITUTES   OF   ENGLISH   GRAMMAP. 

What  was  that  creature  which  Job  called  leviathan  ? 

Those  tvlu)  desire  to  be  safe,  should  be  careful  to  do  that  which  is  right. 

A  butterfly,  who  thought  himself  an  accomplished  traveller,  happened  to 

light  upon  a  bee-hive. 
There  was  a  certain  householder,  who  planted  a  vineyard. 

Under  Note  4. — Nouns  of  Multitude. 

He  instructed  and  fed  the  crowds  that  surrounded  him. 

The  court,  which  has  great  influence  upon  the  public  manners,  ought  to  bo 
very  exemplary. 

The  wild  tribes  that  inhabit  the  wildnerness,  contemplate  the  ocean  with  as- 
tonishment, and  gaze  upon  the  starry  heavens  with  delight. 

Under  Note  5. —  Of  Mere  Names. 

Judas  {which  is  now  an  other  name  for  treachery)  betrayed  hia  master  mth 

a  kiss. 
He  alluded  to  Phalaris, — which  is  a  name  for  all  that  is  cruel. 

Under  Note  6. — Of  the  Pronoun  That, 

He  was  the  first  that  entered. 

He  was  the  drollest  fellow  that  I  ever  saw. 

This  is  the  same  man  that  we  saw  before. 

Who  is  she  that  comes  clothed  in  a  robe  of  green  ? 

The  wife  and  fortune  that  he  gained,  did  not  aid  him. 

Men  that  are  avaricious,  never  have  enough. 

All  that  I  have,  is  thine. 

Was  it  thou,  or  the  wind,  that  shut  the  door  ? 

It  was  not  I  that  shut  it. 

The  babe  that  was  in  the  cradle,  appeared  to  be  healthy. 

Under  Note  1. — Relative  Oktnses  Connected. 

He  is  a  man  that  knows  what  belongs  to  good  manners,  and  that  will  not  do 

a  dishonourable  act. 
The  friend  who  was  here,  and  who  entertained  us  so  much,  will  never  be 

able  to  visit  us  again. 
The  curiosities  which  he  has  brought  home,  and  which  we  shall  have  the 

pleasure  of  seeing,  are  said  to  be  very  rare. 

Under  Note  8. — Relative  and  Preposition. 

Observe  them  in  the  order  in  which  they  stand. 
We  proceeded  immediately  to  the  place  to  which  we  were  directed. 
My  companion  remained  a  week  in  the  state  in  which  I  left  him. 
The  way  in  which  I  do  it,  is  this. 

Under  Note  9. —  Of  Adverbs  for  Relatives. 

Remember  the  condition /rom  which  thou  art  rescued. 
I  know  of  no  rule  hy  which  it  may  be  done. 

He  drew  up  a  petition,  in  which  he  too  freely  represented  his  own  merits. 
The  hour  is  hastening,  in  which  whatever  praise  or  censure  I  have  acquired, 
will  be  remembered  with  equal  indiflerence. 

Under  Note  10. — Repeat  the  Noun. 

Many  will  acknowledge  the  excellence  of  religion,  who  cannot  tell  wherein 
that  excellence  consists. 

Every  difierence  of  opinion  is  not  a  difference  of  principle.— Je^erson.  Bet- 
tar  :  Not  every  difi"erence  of  opinion  is  a  difference  of  principle. 

Ifext  to  the  knowledge  of  God,  this  knowledge  of  ourselves  seems  mo,'** 
worthy  of  our  endeavour. 


KEY  TO   FALSE  SYNTAX. — PRONOUNS.  303 

Under  Note  11. — Plar^e  of  the  Relative. 

Thou,  wlio  hast  thus  condemned  the  act,  art  thyself  the  man  that  committed 

it. 
There  is  in  simplicity  a  certain  majesty,  which  is  far  above  the  quaintness  of 

wit. 
Thou,  who  art  a  party  concerned,  hast  no  right  to  judge. 
It  is  impossible  for  such  men  as  those  who  are  likely  to  get  the  appointment, 

ever  to  determine  this  question. 
There  are,  in  the  empire  of  China,  millions  oi people,  whose  support  is  derived 

almost  entirely  from  rice. 

Under  Note  Vi.—Of  What  for  That. 

I  had  no  idea  but  that  the  story  was  true. 

The  post-boy  is  not  so  weary  but  that  he  can  whistle. 

He  had  no  intimation  but  that  the  men  were  honest. 

Under  Note  13. —  Of  Adjectives  for  Antecedents. 

Some  men  are  too  ignorant  to  be  humble ;  and  without  humility  there  can 

be  no  docility. 
Judas  declared  him  innocent ;  but  innocent  he  could  not  be,  had  he  in  any 

respect  deceived  the  disciples. 
Be  accurate  in  all  you  say  or  do ;  for  accuracy  is  important  in  all  the  concerna 

ofUfe. 
Every  law  supposes  the  transgressor  to  be  wicked ;  and  indeed  he  is  so,  if 

the  law^is  just. 

UNDER   RULE   VI. — PRONOUNS. 

In  youth,  the  multitude  eagerly  pursue  pleasure,  as  if  it  were  their  chief 

good. 
The  council  were  not  unanimous,  and  they  separated  without  coming  to  any 

determination. 
The  committee  were  divided  in  sentiment,  and  they  referred  the  business  to 

the  general  meeting. 
There  happened  to  the  army  a  very  strange  accident,  which  put  them  in  great 

consternation. 
The  enemy  were  not  able  to  support  the  charge,  and  they  dispersed  and  fled' 
The  defendant's  counsel  had  a  difficult  task  imposed  on  them. 
The  board  of  health  publish  their  proceeedings. 
I  saw  all  the  species  thus  delivered  from  their  sorrows. 

Under  Note  1. —  The  Idea  of  Unity. 

I  saw  the  whole  species  thus  delivered  from  its  sorrows. 
This  court  is  famous  for  the  justice  of  tfe  decisions. 
The  convention  then  resolved  itself  into  a  committee  of  the  whole. 
The  crowd  was   so  great  that  the  judges  with  difficulty  made   their  way 
through  it. 

UNDER   RULE   VII. — PRONOUNS, 

Your  levity  and  heedlessness,  if  they  continue,  will  prevent  all  substantial 

improvement. 
Poverty  and  obscurity  will  oppress  him  only  who  esteems  them  oppressive. 
Good  sense  and  refined  policy  are  obvious  to  few,  because  they  cannot  ba 

discovered  but  by  a  train  of  reflection. 
Avoid  haughtiness  of  behaviour,  and  afl'ectation  of  manners :  they  imply  a 

want  of  solid  merit. 
If  love  and  unity  continue,  they  will  make  you  partakers  of  one  an  other's 

joy- 

Eufler  not  jealousy  and  distrust  to  enter :  they  will  destroy,  like  a  canker, 
every  germ  of  friendship. 


304  INSTITUTES  OF  ENGLISH  GRAMMAK. 

Hatred  and  animosity  are  inconsistent  with  Christian  cliarity :  guard,  there- 
fore, against  the  slightest  indulgence  of  them. 

Every  man  is  entitled  to  liberty  of  conscience,  and  freedom  of  opinion,  if  ha 
does  not  pervert  tlieni  to  the  injury  of  others. 

UNDER   RULE    YIIL — PRONOUNS. 

Neither  Sarah,  Ann,  nor  Jane,  has  performed  her  task. 

(Jae  or  the  other  must  relinquish  his  claim. 

A  man  is  not  such  a  machine  as  a  clock  or  a  watch,  which  will  move  only  aa 

it  is  moved. 
Eye  or  barley,  when  it  is  scorched,  may  supply  the  place  of  coffee. 
A  man  may  see  a  metaphor  or  an  allegory  in  a  picture,  as  well  as  read  it  in  a 

description. 
Despise  no  infirmity  of  mind  or  body,  nor  any  condition  of  life  ;  for  it  may 

be  thy  own  lot. 

UNDER  RULE   IX. — VERBS. 

We  were  disappointed. 

She  dares  not  oppose  it. 

His  pulse  is  too  quick. 

Circumstances  after  cases. 

He  needs  not  trouble  himself. 

Twenty-four  pence  are  two  shillings. 

On  one  side  were  beautiful  meadows. 

He  may  pursue  what  studies  he^^tese*. 

What  has  become  of  our  cousins  ? 

There  were  more  impostors  than  one. 

What  sat/  his  friends  on  this  subject? 

Thou  hnowst  the  urgency  of  the  case. 

What  acail  good  sentiments  with  a  bad  life  ? 

Have  those  books  heen  sent  to  the  school? 

There  are  m;uiy  occasions  for  the  exercise  of  patience. 

What  sounds  has  each  of  the  vowels? 

There  icas  a  great  number  of  spectators. 

There  is  an  abundance  of  treatises  on  this  easy  science. 

While,  ever  and  anon,  Wmrefall 

Huge  heaps  of  hoary  mouldfer'd  walls — or, 

While,  ever  and  anon,  IheYQ  fulls 

A  heap  of  hoary  moulder'd  walls. 

He  that  trusfs  in  the  Lord,  will  never  be  without  a  friend. 

Errors  that  nrlginate  in  ignorance,  are  generally  excusable. 

Be  ye  not  as  tlie  liorse,  or  as  the  mule,  wliich  has  no  understanding. 

Not  one  of  the  authors  who  mention  this  incident,  is  entitled  to  credit. 

The  man  and  woman  that  ivere  present,  being  strangers  to  him,  wondered  at 

his  conduct. 
There  necessarily /oZtozy  from  thence  these  plain  and  unquestionable  conse- 
quences. 

0  thou,  forever  present  in  my  way, 

Who  all  my  motives  and  my  toils  surveyst — or, 

O  thou,  forever  present  in  my  way, 

Who  dost  my  motives  and  my  toils  survey. 

Under  Note  1. — Mminative  with  Adjuncts. 

The  derivation  of  these  words  is  uncertain. 

Four  years'  interest  was  demanded. 

One  added  to  nineteen,  malces  twenty. 

The  increase  of  orphans  renders  the  addition  necessary. 

The  road  to  virtue  and  happiness  is  open  to  all. 

The  ship,  with  all  her  crew,  was  lost. 

A  round  of  vain  and  foolish  pursuits,  delights  some  folks. 


KE%  TO  FALSE  SYNTAX. — VERBS.       305 

Under  Note  2. —  Composite  Subjects. 

To  obtain  tlie  praise  of  men,  was  their  only  object. 
To  steal  and  then  deny  it,  is  a  double  sin. 
To  copy  and  claim  the  writings  of  others,  is  plagiarism. 
To  live  soberly,  righteously,  and  piously,  is  rcquij-eil  of  all  men. 
That  it  is  our  duty  to  promote  peace  and  harmony  among  men,  admits  of  ne 
dispute. 

Under  Note  3.—  Verb  between  Nominatives. 

Tlie  reproofs  of  instruction  are  the  way  of  life. 
A  diplithong  is  two  vowels  joined  in  one  syllable. 
So  grcjiit  an  affliction  to  him  ^vere  his  wicked  sons. 
Wliiit  are_  the  latitude  and  longitude  of  that  island? 
He  cliurlishly  said  to  me,  '  Who  are  you?' 

Under  Note  4. — Form  Adapted  to  Style. 

1.  Familiar  Style. 
Was  it  thou  that  built  that  house  ? 

That  boy  ivrifes  very  elegantly. 

Could  not  thou  write  witliout  blotting  thy  book  ? 

Dost  not  thou  ihln/c— or,  DonH  tJwii  thinJ:\  it  will  rain  to-day  \ 

Does  not — or,  DonH  your  cousin  mtend  to  visit  you  ? 

That  boy  has  torn  my  book. 

Was  it  thou  that  spread-  the  hay  ? 

Was  it  James  or  tiiou  that  let  him  in  ? 

He  dares  not  saj^  a  word. 

Thou  stood  in  my  way  and  Mndered  me. 

2.  Solemn  Stylo. 

The  Lord  Tiaih prepared  his  throne  in  the  heavens;  and  his  kingdom  ruleth 

over  all. — Psalms,  ciii,,19. 
Thou  answeredst  them,  O  Lord  our  God :  thou  wast  a  God  that  forgave* 

them,  though  thou  toolcest  vengeance  of  their  inventions. 
Then  thou  spakest  in  vision  to  thy  Holy  One,  and  saidst. — Psalms,  Ixxxix, 

19. 
So  then,  it  is   not  of  him  that  ivilleth,  nor  of  him  that  runnetli,  but  of  God 

that  slioweth  mercy. — Eom.,  ix,  16. 

Under  Note  5. —  The  Nominative  Expressed. 

New  York,  Fifthmonth  "Bd,  1823. 
Dear  friend, 

/am  sorry  to  hear  of  thy  loss ;  but  /hope  it  may  be  retrieved.  1 
should  bo  happy  to  render  thee  any  assistance  in  my  power.  /  shall  call 
to  see  thee  to-morrow  morning.     Accept  assurances  of  my  regard. 

A.  B. 

New  York,  May  8d,  P.  M.,  1823. 
Dear  sir, 

/  have  just  received  the  kind  note  yo^l,  favoured  me  with  this 
morning  ;  and  /cannot  forbear  to  express  my  gratitude  to  you.  On  further 
information,  /iind  /  have  not  lost  so  much  as  /at  first  supposed  ;  and  /  be- 
lieve /shall  still  be  able  to  meet  all  my  engagements.  /  should,  however, 
be  happy  to  see  you.  Accept,  dear  sir, 'my  most  cordial  thanks.  C.  D. 
Will  martial  flames  forever  fire  thy  mind, 
And  ivilt  thou  never  be  to  Heaven  resign'dl 

UNDER  RULE   X. — VERBS. 
The  nobility  were  assured  that  he  would  not  interpose. 

*  Forgavest  (as  in  Psalm  xcis,  8,)  appears  to  be  wrong;  because  the  relative  that 
anil  its  antecedent  God  arc  of  the  third  person,  and  not  of  the  second. 


w 


306  INSTITUTES   OF  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

The  committee  have  attended  to  their  appointment. 

Mankind  were  not  uniiei  by  the  bonds  of  civil  society. 

The  majority  ^vere  disposed  to  adopt  the  measure. 

The  peasantry  go  bareibot,  and  the  middle  sort  make  use  of  wooden  Bhoes. 

All  the  world  are  spectators  of  your  conduct. 

Blessed  are  the  people  that  know  the  joyful  sound. 

Under  Note  1. — The  Idea  of  Unity. 

The  church  has  no  power  to  inflict  corporal  punishments. 

The  fleet  was  seen  sailing  up  the  channel. 

The  meeting  has  established  several  salutary  regulations. 

The  regiment  consists  of  a  thousand  men. 

A  detachment  of  two  hundred  men  was  immediately  sent. 

Every  auditory  takes  this  in  good  part. 

In  this  business,  the  house  of  commons  was  of  no  weight. 

Is  the  senate  considered  as  a  separate  body  ? 

There  is  a  flock  of  birds. 

No  society  is  chargeable  with  the  disapproved  conduct  of  particular  membersi 

UNDER   RULE   XI. — VERBS. 

Temperance  and  exercise  preserve  health. 

Time  and  tide  wait  for  no  man. 

My  love  and  afiection  towards  thee  remain  unaltered. 

"Wealth,  honour,  and  happiness,  forsake  the  indolent. 

My  flesh  and  my  \iQixrtfail. 

In  all  his  works,  there  are  sprightliness  and  vigour. 

Elizabeth's  meekness  and  humility  icei'e  extraordinary. 

In  unity  consist  the  security  and  welfare  of  every  society. 

High  pleasures  and  luxurious  living  beget  satiety. 

Much  do  human  pride  and  folly  require  correction. 

Our  conversation  and  intercourse  with  the  world  are,  in  several  respects,  an 

education  for  vice. 
Occasional  release  from  toil,  and  indulgence  of  ease,  are  what  nature  ds" 

mands,  and  virtue  allows. 
What  generosity,  and  what  humanity,  were  then  displayed  ? 

What  thou  desir'st. 
And  what  thou  fearest,  alike  destroy  all  hope. 

Under  Note  1. — Affirmation  with  Negation, 

Wisdom,  and  not  wealth,  procures  esteem. 

Prudence,  and  not  pomp,  is  the  basis  of  his  fame. 

Not  fear,  but  labour  has  overcome  him. 

The  decency,  and  not  the  abstinence,  makes  the  diflTerence. 

Not  her  beauty,  but  her  talents  attract  attention. 

It  is  her  talents,  and  not  her  beauty,  that  attract  attention. 

It  is  her  beauty,  and  not  her  talents,  that  attracts  attention. 

Under  Note  2. — As  Well  As,  But,  or  Save. 

His  constitution,  as  well  as  his  fortune,  requires  care. 
Their  religion,  as  well  as  their  manners,  was  ridiculed. 
Every  one,  but  thou,  had  been  legally  discJiarged. 
The  buyer,  as  well  as  the  seller,  renders  himself  ]Aah\Qt. 
All  songsters,  save  the  hooting  owl,  were  mute. 
None,  but  thou,  O  mighty  prince  !  can  avert  the  blow. 
Nothing,  but  frivolous  amusements,  »Z«a«es  the  indolent. 
Caesar,  as  well  as  Cicero,  ivas  admired  for  his  eloquence. 

Under  Note  S.—Each,  Every,  or  No, 

Each  day,  and  each  hour,  brings  its  portion  of  duty. 

Every  house,  and  even  every  cottage,  was  plundered.  * 


KEY  TO  FALSE  SYNTAX. — VERBS.       307 

Every  thought,  every  word,  and  every  action,  will  be  brought  into  judge- 
ment, whether  it  be  good  or  evil. 

The  time  will  come,  wlien  no  oppressor,  no  unjust  man,  will  be  able  to 
screen  himself  from  punishment. 

No  bandit  fierce,  no  tyrant  mad  with  pride, 
No  cavern'd  hermit,  rests  self-satisfied. — Fope. 

Under  Note  4. — And  Hequired. 

In  this  affair,  perseverance  and  dexterity  were  requisite. 

Town  a?id  country  are  equally  agreeable  to  me. 

Sobriety  and  humility  lead  to  honour. 

The  king,  the  lords,  and  the  commons,  compose  the  British  parliament. 

The  man  and  his  whole  family  are  dead. 

A  small  house  a7id  a  trifling  annuity  are  still  granted  him. 

Under  Note  5.— Distinct  Suhject  Phrases. 

To  profess,  and  to  possess,  are  very  different  things. 

To  do  justly,  to  love  mercy,  and  to  walk  humbly  with  God,  are  duties  of 

universal  obligation. 
To  be  round  or  square,  to  be  solid  or  fluid,  to  be  large  or  small,  and  to  ba 

moved  swiftly  or  slowly,  are  all  equally  alien  from  the  nature  of  thought. 

UNDER  RULE  XII. — VERBS. 

Neither  imprudence,  credulity,  nor  vanity,  Tias  ever  been  imputed  to  him. 

What  the  heart  or  the  imagination  dictaf'es,  flows  readily. 

Neither  authority  nor  analogy  supports  such  an  opinion. 

Either  ability  or  inclination  was  wanting. 

Redundant  grass  or  heath  affords  abundance  to  their  cattle. 

The  returns  of  kindness  are  sweet ;  and  there  is  neither  honour,  nor  virtue, 

nor  utility,  in  repelling  them. 
The  sense  or  drift  of  a  proposition,  often  depends  upon  a  single  letter. 

Under  Note  1. — Nominatives  (hat  Disagree. 

Neither  he  nor  you  tvere  there. 
Either  the  boysor  I  was  in  fault. 
Neither  he  nor  I  iritend  to  be  present. 
Neither  the  captain  nor  the  sailors  wei'e  saved. 

"Whether  one  person  or  more  were  concerned  in  the  business,  does  not  yet 
appear. 

Under  Note  2.— The  Concord  Completed. 

Are  they,  or  am  I,  expected  to  be  there  ? 

Neither  is  he,  nor  am  I,  capable  of  it. 

Either  he  has  been  imprudent,  or  liis  associates  have  been  vindictive. 

Neither  were  their  riches,  nor  was  their  influence  great. 

Under  Note  3. — Place  of  the  First  Person, 

My  father  and  7  were  riding  out. 

The  premiums  were  given  to  George  and  me. 

Jane  and  /are  invited. 

They  ought  to  invite  my  sister  and  me. 

We  dreamed  a  dream  in  one  night,  he  and  I. 

Under  Note  4. — Distinct  Subject  Phrases, 

To  practise  tale-bearing,  or  even  to  countenance  it,  is  great  injustice. 
To  reveal  secrets,  or  to  betray  one's  friends,  is  contemptible  perfidy. 


308  INSTITUTES   OF  ENGLISH   GRAMMAE. 

UNDER  EULE   5111. — VERBS, 

Doth  be  not  leave  tlie  ninety  and  nine,  and  go  into  the  mountains,  and  seen 
that  which  is  gone  astray  ? 

Did  he  not  tell  thee  his  fault,  and  entreat  thee  to  forgive  him  ? 

If  he  understands  the  business,  and  attends  to  it,  wlierein  is  be  deficient  ? 

The  day  is  approaching,  and  is  hastening  upon  us,  in  -which  we  must  give  an 
account  of  our  stewardship. 

If  thou  dost  not  turn  unto  the  Lord,  but  dost  forget  him  who  remembered 
tliee  in  thy  distress,  great  will  be  thy  condemnation — or,  better :  If  thou 

I  turn  not  unto  the  Lord,  hxit  forget  him  who  remembered  thee  in  thy  dis- 
tress, great  will  be  thy  condemnation. 

There  are  a  few,  who  have  kejit  their  integrity  to  the  Lord,  and  ivho  prefer 
bis  truth  to  all  other  enjoyments. 

This  report  ims  current  yesterday,  and  it  agrees  with  what  we  heard  before. 

Virtue  is  gaiKixaWy  praised,  and  'it  would  le  generally  practised  ixls.0,  if  men 
were  vv'ise. 

Cnder  Xote  1. — Preterits  and  Participles. 

He  umdd  have  gone  with  ns,  if  we  had  invited  him. 
They  ham  chosen  the  part  of  honour  and  virtue. 
He  soon  began  to  be  weary  of  havmg  nothing  to  do. 
Somebody  has  broken  my  slate. 
1  saw  him  when  he  did  it. 

Under  Note  2. — Form  Adapted  to  Sense. 

He  had  entered  into  the  conspiracy. 

The  American  planters  raise  cotton  and  rice. 

The  report  is  founded  on  truth. 

I  entered  the  room  and  sat  down. 

Go  and  lie  down,  my  son. 

With  such  books,  it  will  always  be  difficult  to  teach  children  to  read. 

UNDER   EULE   XIV. — PARTICIPLES. 

Under  Note  1. — Of  Expunged. 

By  observing  truth,  you  will  command  respect. 

I  could  not,  for  my  heart,  forbear  pitying  him. 

I  heard  them  discussing  this  subject. 

By  consulting  tne  best  authors,  he  became  learned. 

Here  are  rules,  by  observing  which,  you  may  avoid  eiTor. 

Under  Note  2. — Of  Inserted. 

Their  consent  was  necessary  fnr  the  raising  ^any  supplies. 
Thus  the  saving  of  ?l  great  nation  devolved  on  a  husbandman. 
It  is  an  overvaluing  of  ourselves,  to  decide  upon  every  thing. 
The  teacher  does  not  allow  any  calling  qf\\\  names. 
That  burning  (/the  capitol  was  a  wanton  outrage. 
May  nothing  hinder  our  receiving  qf&o  great  a  good. 
My  admitting  of  Hie  fact  will  not  aifect  the  argument. 
Cain's  killing  of  his  brother  originated  in  envy. 

Under  Note  3. — Expression  Changed. 
Ctcsar  carried  off  the  treasures,  which  his  opponent  had  neglected  to  taht 

with  him. 
It  is  dangerous  to  play  with  edge  tools. 
I  intend  to  return  in  a  few  days. 

To  suffer  needlexsh/ — or.  Needless  svffering  is  never  a  duty. 
Nor  is  it  wise  to  complain. 
I  well  remember  to  have  told  you  so — -or,  that  I  told  you  so. 


KEY  TO  FALSE  SYNTAX. — ADVERBS.      309 

The  doincj  of  good — or,  To  do  good,  is  a  Christian's  vocation. 
Piety  is  a  constant  endeaiour  lo  live  to  God.     It  is  an  earnest  desire  to  do  liis 
will,  aud  not  our  own. 

Under  Note  A. — The  Lead'mg  Word. 

There  is  no  harm  in  xoomeii's  knowing  about  these  things. 
Tiiey  did  not  give  notice  oi  X\xq, 'pupW s  leaving. 
The  sun,  darting  bis  beams  througii  my  window,  awoke  me. 
The  maturity  ot  the  sago  tree  is  known  by  the  leaves^  being  covered  with  * 
delicate  white  powder. 

Tinder  Note  5. — Reference  of  Particqjlcs. 

Bailing  np  the  river,  you  may  see  tlie  whole  town. 

Being  conscious  of  guilt,  men  treruUe  at  death — or,  Consciousness  of  gulU 

renders  death  terrible. 
By  yielding  to  temptation,  ive  sacrifice  our  peace. 
In  loving  our  enemies,  we  shed  no  man's  blood. 
By  teaching  the  young,  we  prepare  them  for  usefulness. 

Under  Note  6. — Participles,  not  Preterits. 

A  nail  well  driven  will  support  a  great  weight. 

See  here  a  hundred  sentences  stolen  from  my  work. 

I  found  the  water  entirely,/;'O0^»,  and  the  pitcher  hrolcen. 

Being/w'safc/i  by  my  friends,  I  had  no  other  resource. 

Under  Note  7. — Form  of  Participles. 

Till  by  barbarian  deluges  o'erflowed. 

Like  the  lusti-e  of  diamonds  set  in  gold. 

A  beam  ethereal,  sullied  and  ahsotii'd. 

"With  powerless  wings  around  them  ivrapp'd. 

Error  leurntd  from  preaching,  is  held  as  sacred  truth. 

UNDER    RULE    XV. — ADVERBS. 

Under  Note  1. — The  Placing  of  Adverls. 

The  worV  will  never  he  completed. 

"VVe  should  always  prefer  our  duty  to  our  pleasure. 

It  is  impossible  to  be  continually  at  work. 

He  behaved  impertinently  to  his  master. 

The  heavenly  bodies  are  popetually  in  motion. 

He  found  her  not  only  busy^wt  even  pleased  and  happy. 

Under  Note  2. — Adverbs  for  Adjectives. 

Give  him  an  early  and  decisive  answer. 

When  a  substantive  is  put  absolute. 

Such  expressions  sound  ha?-sh. 

Such  events  are  oi'rare  (or  unfrequent)  occurrence. 

Velvet  feels  very  smooth. 

Under  Note  S. — Of  Here  for  IFWher,  tte. 

Bring  him  7HY7;(?r  (o  me. 
1  shall  go  thither  again  in  a  few  days. 
Whither  are  they  all  riding  in  so  great  haste? 

Under  Note  4. — Of  From  Hence,  dtc 

Hence  it  appears  that  the  statement  is  incorrect. 
Thence  arose  the  misunderstanding. 
Do  you  know  whence  it  proceeds  ? 


810  INSTITUTES  OF  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

Under  Note  5.— Of  the  Adverb  Eow. 

You  see  that  not  many  are  required. 

I  knew  that  they  bad  heard  of  his  misfortunes. 

He  remarked,  that  time  was  valuable. 

Under  NoU  <o.—Ofthe  Adverb  No. 

Know  now,  whether  this  is  thy  son's  coat  or  not. 
Whether  be  is  in  fault  or  not,  1  cannot  tell. 
1  will  ascertain  whether  it  is  so  or  rujt. 

Under  Note  1  .—Of  Double  Negatives. 

I  will  by  no  means  entertain  a  spy. 

l>lobody  ever  invented  or  discovered  any  thing,  in  any  way  to  be  compared 

with  this. 
Be  honest,  and  take  no  shape  or  semblance  of  disgmse. 
I  did  not  like  either  his  temper  or  his  principles. 
Nothing  ever  can  justify  ingratitude. 

UNDER  RULE  XVI. — CONJUNCTIONS. 

Under  Note  I.— Of  Two  Terms  with  One. 

He  has  made  alterations  in  the  work,  and  additions  to  it. 

He  is  more  bold  than  his  companion,  but  not  so  wise. 

Sincerity  is  as  valuable  as  knf/wledge,  and  even  more  so. 

I  always  have  been,  and  I  always  shall  be,  of  this  opinion. 

What  is  now  kept  secret,  shall  be  hereafter  displayed  and  seen  in  the  clearea' 
light. 

We  pervert  the  noble  faculty  of  speech,  when  we  use  it  to  defame  or  to  dis- 
quiet our  neighbours. 

Be  more  anxious  to  acquire  knowledge,  than  to  show  it. 

The  court  of  chancery  frequently  mitigates  and  disarms  the  common  law. 

Under  Note  2.— Of  Zest  or  But  for  That. 

We  were  apprehensive  that  some  accident  had  happened. 

I  do  not  deny  that  he  has  merit. 

Are  you  afraid  that  he  will  forget  you  ? 

These  paths  and  bow'rs,  doiibt  not  that  our  joint  hands 
Will  keep  from  wilderness. 

Under  Note  Z.— Prefer  Tlian. 

It  was  no  other  than  his  own  father. 

Have  you  no  further  proof  than  this  ? 

I  expected  something  more  than  this. 

He  no  sooner  retires  than  his  heart  burns  with  devotion. 

Such  literary  filching  is  nothing  else  than  robbery. 

Under  Note  4. — Of  Coi-respondents. 

Neither  despise  nor  oppose  what  you  do  not  understand. 

He  would  neither  do  itliimself  nor  let  me  do  it. 

The  majesty  of  good  things  is  such,  tliat  the  confines  of  them  are  reverend. 

Whether  he  intends  to  do  so  or  not,  I  cannot  tell. 

Send  me  such  articles  only,  as  are  adapted  to  this  market. 

So  far  as  I  am  able  to  I'udge,  the  book  is  well  written. 

No  errors  are  so  trivial  as  riot  to  deMrve  correction. 

It  will  neither  improve  the  mind,  nor  delight  the  fancy. 

The  one  is  as  deserving  as  the  other. 

There  is  no  condition  so  secure  that  it  cannot  admit  of  change. 

Do  you  think  this  is  as  good  as  that  ? 

The  relations  are  so  obscure  that  they  require  much  thought. 


KEY  TO   FALSE  SYI^AX. — PREPOSITIONS.  3H 

None  is  BO  fierce  as  to  dare  stir  him  up. 

Tliere  was  no  man  so  sanguine  as  not  to  apprehend  some  ill  consequence. 

I  must  be  so  candid  as  to  own  that  I  do  not  understand  it. 

The  booli  is  not  so  well  printed  as  it  ought  to  be. 

As  still  he  sat  as  those  who  wait, 

Till  judgement  speak  the  doom  of  fate. 

UNDER  RULE  XVII. — PREPOSITIONS. 

ZTnder  Note  1. — Owke  of  Pre^ositiont. 

She  finds  a  difficultjr  in  fixin?  her  mind. 
This  aflair  did  not  tall  undernis  cognizance. 
He  was  accused  o/"  betraying  liis  trust. 
There  was  no  water,  and  he  died  f>/ thirst. 
I  have  no  oecasion_/or  his  services. 
You  ma^  safely  confide  in  him. 
I  entertain  no  prejudice  against  him. 
You  may  rely  on  what  I  tell  you. 
Virtue  and  vice  differ  widely //-om  each  other. 
This  remark  is  founded  on  truth. 
After  many  toils,  we  arrived  o/ our  journey's  end. 
I  will  tell  you  a  story  very  differeut//'o»i  that. 
Their  conduct  is  agreeable  to  their  profession. 
Excessive  pleasures  pass  from  satiety  into  disgust. 
I  turned  in  disgust  from  the  spectacle. 
They  are  gone  into  the  meadow. 
Let  this  be  divided  among  the  three. 
The  shells  were  broken  into  pieces. 
The  deception  has  passed  with  every  one. 
They  never  quarrel  with  each  other. 

Through  every  diflBculty— or,  Amidst  all  difficulties,  he  perserered. 
Let  us  go  up  stairs. 

I  was  in  London,  when  this  happened. 
We  were  detained  at  home,  and  disappointed  of  our  walk. 
This  originated  in  mistake. 

The  Bridewell  is  situated  on  the  west  of  the  City-Hall,  and  it  has  no  com- 
munication ivith  the  other  buildings. 
I  am  disappointed  in  the  work ;  it  is  very  inferior  to  what  I  expected. 

Under  Note  2. — Omission  of  Prepositions. 

Be  worthy  of  me,  as  I  am  worthy  ofjovi. 
They  cannot  but  be  unworthy  of  the  care  of  others. 
Thou  shalt  have  no  portion  on  this  side  of  the  river. 
Sestos  and  Abydos  were  exactly  opposite  to  each  other. 
Ovid  was  huDhhedfrom  Rome  by  his  patron  Augustus. 

UNDER   RULE   XIX. —  POSSESSIVES. 

Under  Note  \.—The  Possessive  Form, 

Man's  chief  good  is  an  upright  mind. 

I  will  not  destroy  the  city  for  ten's  sake. 

Moses's  rod  was  turned  into  a  serpent. 

Tiiey  are  wolves  in  sJieeps''  clothing. 

The  tree  is  known  by  its  fruit. 

The  privilege  is  not  theirs,  any  more  than  it  is  yours. 
Yet  he  was  gentle  as  soft  summer  airs, 
Had  grace  for  others^  sins,  but  none  for  theirs. — Cowper. 

Under  Note  2. — Possessives  Connected. 

There  ia  but  little  difference  between  the  EartK's  and  Venus's  diametar. 
Tliia  hat  ia  John's,  or  James's. 


812  INSTITUTES   OF  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 


The  store  is  opposite  to  Morris  and  Coi 
Tliis  palace  has  been  the  gv&wd.  Sultan 


Company's. 

__  ^  Itett  Mahomet's. 

This  was  the  Apostle  Paul's  advice. 
Were  Cain's  occupation  and  AbcVs  the  same  ? 
Were  Caiv?s  and  Abel's  occupation  the  same  ? 
Were  Cain  and  Abel's  occupations  the  same? 
Were  (Jain's  and  Abel's  parents  the  same? 
Were  Cain's  parents  and  Abel's  the  same  3 
Was  Gain  and  Abel's  father  there  ? 
Were  Cain  and  Abel's  parents  there? 

Thy  Maker's  will  has  placed  thee  here, 
A  Afaker  wise  and  good. 

Under  Note  Z.— Choice  of  Forms. 

The  government  of  the  world  is  not  left  to  chance. 
He  was  heir  to  tJie  son  o/]  Louis  the  Sixteeiith. 
The  throne  we  honour,  is  the  people's  choice. 
We  met  at  the  house  of  my  brother's  partner. 
An  account  of  the  proceedings  of  Alexander'' s  court. 

Here  is  a  copy  of  the  Constitution  of  the  Teachers'  Society  in  the  city  of  New- 
York. 

Under  Note  4. — Nouns  with  Possessives  Plural. 

Their  heaWi  perhaps  may  be  pretty  well  secured. 
^Ve  all  have  talents  committed  to  our  charge.  _ 
Vox  your  sahe  forgave  I  it,  in  the  sight  of  Christ. 
We  are,  for  our  part,  well  satisfied. 
The  pious  cheerfully  submit  to  their  lot. 
Tools  think  it  not  worth  their  while  to  be  wise. 

Under  Note  5. — Of  Possessives  with  Participles. 

I  rewarded  the  boy  for  studying  so  diligently. 
Have  you  a  rule  for  thus  parsing  the  participle  ? 
He  errs  in  giving  the  word  a  double  construction. 
By  offending  others,  we  expose  ourselves. 
They  deserve  our  thanks  for  quickly  relieving  us. 

UNDER   RULE   XX. — OBJECTIVES. 

77iee  only  have  I  chosen. 
JlTiorn  shall  we  send  on  this  errand  ? 
My  father  allowed  my  brother  and  me  to  accompany  him. 
Jllm  that  is  idle  and  mischievous,  reprove  sharply. 
Who7n  should  I  meet  but  my  old  friend ! 
He  accosts  ivhomeser  he  meets. 
Whomsoever  the  court  favours,  is  safe. 
Them  that  honour  me,  I  will  honour. 
Whom  do  you  think  I  saw  the  other  day? 

Under  Note  1. — An  Object  Required. 

The  ambitious  are  always  seeking  to  aggrandize  themselvee. 

I  must  premise  three  circumstances. 

This  society  does  not  alhiv  personal  reflections. 

False  accusation  cannot  diminish  real  merit. 

His  servants  ye  are  whom  ye  obey. 

Under  Note  2.— Of  False  Transitives. 

Good  "keeiAng  fattens  the  herd. 

Wo  endeavoured  to  reconcile  the  parties. 

Being  weary,  he  sat  down. 

Go,  -fl^ee  away  into  the  land  of  Judah. 

The  popular  lords  did  not  fail  to  erdwrge  on  the  subject. 


Key  to  false  syntax. — same  cases,  etc.    313 

Under  Note  S.— Passive  Verls, 

The  benefit  of  their  recantation  was  refused  them. 
Temporal  riches  are  not  promised  to  belieoers. 
Several  beautiful  pictures  were  shown  us. 
But,  unfortunately,  the  favour  was  denied  me. 
A  high  compliment  was  paid  i/oit. 
The  question  has  never  been  asked  7ne. 

UNDER   RULE   XXI. — SAME  CASES. 

We  thought  it  was  tJiou. 

I  would  act  the  same  part,  if  I  were  he. 

It  could  not  have  been  she. 

It  is  not  /,  that  he  is  angry  with. 

They  believed  it  to  be  me. 

It  was  thought  to  be  he. 

If  it  had  been  she,  she  would  have  told  us. 

We  know  it  to  be  them. 

Who  do  yau  think  it  is  ? 

Whom  do  you  suppose  it  to  be  ? 
We  did  not  know  who  they  were. 
Thou  art  he  whom  they  described. 
Impossible  !  it  can't  ba  /. 

Who  did  he  tliink  you  were  ? 

Who  say  ye  that  I  am  ? 

UNDER   RULE   XXII. — OBJECTIVES. 

Lit  that  remain  a  secret  between  you  and  me. 
I  lent  the  book  to  some  one,  I  know  not  [to]  tvhom. 
Whom  did  he  inquire  for  ?      Thee. 
From  Mm  that  is  needy,  turn  not  away. 
We  are  all  accountable,  each  for  his  own  ads. 
Does  that  boy  know  whom  he  is  speaking  to  ? 
I  bestow  my  favours  on  whomsoever  I  will. 

UNDER   RULE   XXIII. — INFINITIVES. 

Please  to  excuse  my  son's  absence. 
Cause  every  man  to  go  out  from  me. 
Forbid  them  to  enter  the  garden. 
Do  you  not  perceive  it  to  move  ? 
Allow  others  to  disco  ver  your  merit. 
He  was  seen  to  go  in  at  that  gate. 
Permit  me  to  pass  this  way. 

UNDER   RULE   XXIV. — INFINITIVES. 

I  felt  a  chilling  sensation  creep  over  me. 

I  have  heard  him  mention  the  subject. 

Bid  the  boys  come  in  immediately. 

I  dare  say  he  has  not  got  home  yet. 

Let  no  rash  promise  he  made. 

We  sometimes  see  bad  men  honoured. 

A  good  reader  will  make  himself  distinctly  heard. 

UNDER    RULE   XXV. — NOM.   ABSOLUTE. 

/being  young,  they  deceived  me. 
Thei/  refusing  to  comply,  1  withdrew. 
Thou  being  present,  he  would  not  tell  what  he  knew. 
The  child  i.s  lost ;  and  /,  whither  shall  I  go  ? 

14 


814  INSTITUTES   OF  ENGLISH  GKAMMAB. 

0  happy  we  !  surrounded  thus  with  blessings  1 

"  J%OM  too !  Brutus,  my  son !"  cried  Caesar  overcome. 

But  he,  the  chieftain  of  them  all, 

His  sword  hangs  rusting  on  the  wall.—  W.  Scott. 

She  quick  relapsing  to  her  former  state, 
With  boding  tears  approach  the  serving  train. 

There  all  thy  gifts  and  graces  we  display, 
Thauy  only  thou,  directing  all  our  way. — Pope. 

UNDER  RULE   XXVI. — SUBJUNCTIVES. 

First  Clause — Subjunctive  Present, 

He  will  maintain  his  cause,  though  he  lose  his  estate. 
They  will  fine  thee,  unless  thou  offer  an  excuse. 

1  shall  walk  out  in  the  afternoon,  unless  it  rain.  • 
Let  him  take  heed  lest  \\&fall. 

On  condition  that  he  come,  I  consent  to  stay. 

If  he  be  but  discreet,  he  will  succeed. 

Take  heed  that  thou  speah  not  to  Jacob. 

If  thou  cast  me  off,  I  shall  be  miserable. 

Send  them  to  me,  if  thou  please. 

Watch  the  door  of  thy  lips,  lest  thou  utter  folly. 

Second  Ckmse. — Suhjunctive  Imperfect. 

If  I  tcere  to  write,  he  would  not  regard  it. 

If  thou,/is^<  as  I  do,  we  should  soon  decide. 

Though  tliou  shed  thy  blood  in  the  cause,  it  would  but  prove  thee  sincerely 

a  fool. 
If  thou  loved  him,  there  would  be  more  evidence  of  it. 
I  believed,  whatever  were  the  issue,  all  would  be  well. 
If  love  were  never  feigned,  it  would  appear  to  l^e  scarce. 
There  fell  from  his  eyes,  as  it  were  scales. 
If  he  tvere  an  impostor,  he  must  liave  been  detected. 
Were  death  denied,  all  men  would  wish  to  C.io. 

0  that  there  ivere  yet  a  day  to  redress  thy  wrongs  ! 
Though  thou  wert  huge  as  Atlas,  thy  efforts  would  be  vain. 

Last  Clause. — Indicative  Mood. 

Though  he  seems  to  be  artless,  he  has  deceived  us. 
If  he  thinks  as  he  speaks,  he  may  safely    e  trusted. 
Though  this  event  is  strange,  it  certainlj   did  happen. 
If  thou  hvest  tranquillity  of  mind,  seek  it  not  abroad. 

If  seasons  of  idleness  are  dangerous,  what  must  a  continued  habit  of  ifc  prove? 
Though  he  was  a  son,  yet  learned  he  obedience  by  the  things  which  ha 
sufl'ered. 

1  knew  thou  wast  not  slow  to  hear. 

Under  Note  1. —  Words  of  Time. 

The  work  was  finished  last  week. 

He  has  been,  out  of  employment  this  fortnight. 

This  mode  of  expression  was  formerly  in  use. 

I  shall  be  much  obliged  to  him  if  he  will  attend  to  it. 

I  will  pay  the  vows  which  my  lips  uttered  when  I  was  in  trouble. 

I  have  compassion  on  the  multitude,  because  they  have  continued  with  ma 
now  three  days. 

I  tliought,  by  the  accent,  that  he  was  speaking  to  his  child. 

And  he  that  had  been  dead,  sat  up  and  began  to  speak. 

Thou  hast  borne,  aud  hast  had  patience,  and  for  my  name's  sake  hast  la- 
boured, and  hast  not  fainted. 


KEY  TO   FALSE   SYNTAX. — PROMISCUOUS.  815 

Ye  -will  not  come  uato  mo  that  ye  may  have  life — or,  Ye  would  not  come  unto 

me  that  ye  ini^ht  have  life. 
At  the  end  ot  tins  quarter,  I  shall  have  heen  nt  school  two  years. 
We  have  done  no  more  than  it  was  our  duty  to  do. 

Under  Rule  2. — Relative  Tenses. 

We  expected  that  he  would  arrive  last  uigbt. 

Our  friends  intended  to  meet  us. 

We  lioped  to  see  you. 

He  would  not  have  been  allowed  to  enter. 

Under  Note  3. — Permanent  Propositions. 

The  doctor  affirmed,  that  fever  always  produces  thirst. 
The  ancients  asserted,  that  virtue  is  \\a  own  reward. 

PROMISCUOUS   EXAMPLES   CORRECTED. 

LESSON    I. 

There  is  a  spirit  in  man;  and  the  inspiration  of  the  Almighty  giveth  him 

understandnig. 
My  people  do  not  consider. 
1  have  never  heard  whom  they  invited. 

Then  hasten  thy  return ;  for,  tho^i  away, 
Nor  lustre  has  the  sun,  nor  joy  the  day. 

I  am  as  •well  as  when  you  were  here. 

That  elderly  man,  him  that  came  in  late,  I  supposed  to  be  the  superinten- 
dent. 

All  the  virtues  of  mankind  are  to  bo  counted  upon  a  few  fingers ;  but  tJuir 
follies  and  vices  are  innumerable. 

It  must  indeed  be  confessed,  that  a  lampoon  or  a  satire  does  not  carry  in  it 
robbery  or  murder. 

There  were  more  persons  than  one  engaged  in  this  affair. 

A  man  who  lacks  ceremony,  has  need  o/ great  merit. 

A  wise  man  avoids  the  showing  of  any  excellence  in  trifles.  Better— /o»^ 
lears  to  show — or,  is  careful  not  to  show,  &c. 

l^a  first  and  most  important  female  quality  is  sweetness  of  temper. 

We  choose  rather  to  lead  than  to  follow. 

Ignorance  is  the  mother  of  fear,  as  well  as  of  admiration. 

He  must  fear  many,  whom  many  fear. 

Every  one  partakes  of  honour  bestowed  on  the  worthy. 

The  king  and  the  queen  were  not  at  all  deceived. — [^Note  ith,  RuU  xi.] 

Were  there  no  difference,  there  would  be  no  choice. 

I  would  rather  have  been  informed. 

Must  thou  return  this  evening? 

Life  and  death  are  in  the  power  of  the  tongue. 

I  saw  a  person  that  I  took  to  be  her. 

Let  him  be  who  he  may,  I  shall  not  stop. 

This  is  certainly  a  useful  invention. 

That  such  a  spirit  as  thou  does  TWt  understand  me. 

'  It  is  no  more  than  justice,'  quoth  the  farmer. 

LESSON    II. 

Great  improvements  have  leen  made. 

AVhat  I  have  heard,  is  undoubtedly  true. 

The  nation  is  torn  by  feuds  which  threaten  its  ruin. 

The  account  of  these  transactions  was  incorrect. 

Godhness  with  contentment  is  great  gain. 

The  number  of  sufferers  has  not  been  ascertained. 

Thare  is  one  or  more  of  them  yet  in  conflnemeut. 


316  INSTITUTES   OF   ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

They  have  chosen  the  wisest  part. 

He  spent  his  whole  life  in  doing  good. 

They  scarcely  know  that  temperance  is  a  virtue. 

1  am  afraid  that  I  have  laboured  in  vain. 

Mischief  o»  itself  doth  back  recoil. 

This  construction  sounds  rather  harsh. 

What  is  the  cause  of  the  leaves'  curling? 

Was  it  thou^  that  made  the  noise  ? 

Let  thy  flock  clothe  the  naked. 

Wisdom  and  knowledge  are  granted  unto  thee. 

His  conduct  was  surprisingly  strange. 

Tliis  woman  taught  my  brother  and  me  to  read. 

Let  your  promises  be  such  as  you  can  perform. 

We  shall  sell  them  in  the  state  in  which  they  now  are. 

We  may,  however,  add  this  observation. 

This  came  into  fashion  when  I  was  young. 

I  did  not  use  the  leaves,  but  the  root  of  the  plant. 

We  have  continually  used  every  means  in  our  power. 

Pass  ye  away,  ye  inhabitants  of  Saphir— or.  Pass  away,  thou  inhabitant  of 

Saphir. 
Give  every  syllable  and  every  letter  its  proper  sound. 

LESSON  III. 

To  know  exactly  how  much  mischief  may  be  ventured  upon  with  impunity, 

is  knowledge  enough  for  some  folks. 
Every  leaf  and  every  twig  teems  with  life. 
1  rejoiced  at  this  intelligence. 
At  this  stage  of  advancement,  the  pupil  finds  little  difficulty  in  understanding 

the  passive  and  the  neuter  verbs. 
1  was  afraid  thai  I  should  lose  the  parcel. 
Which  of  all  these  patterns  is  the  prettiest  ? 
They  that  [or  who]  despise  instruction,  shall  not  be  wise. 
Both  thou  and  thy  advisers  have  mistaken  your  interest. 
An  idle  soul  shall  suffer  hunger. 
The  lips  of  knowle  dge  are  a  precious  jewel. 
My  cousin  and  /are  requested  to  attend. 
/  can  only  say,  that  Buoh  is  my  belief. 
This  is  different  from  the  conscience''  being  made  to  feel. 
Here  is  ground  for  their  leaving  o/'the  world  with  peace— or,  (better,)  Here 

is  ground/or  leaoing  the  world  with  peace. 
Whither  are  you  all  running  so  fast  ? 
Man  is  the  noblest  work  of  creation. 
Oiall  crimes  willful  murder  is  the  most  atrocious. 
The  tribes  tJiat  I  visited,  are  partially  civilized. 
Hence  I  conclude,  they  are  in  error. 
The  girls'  books  are  neater  than  the  loys\ 
1  intended  to  transcribe  it. 
Shall  a  character  made  up  of  the  very  worst  passions,  pass  under  the  name 

of  gentleman  ? 
Khoda  ran  in,  and  told  that  Peter  stood  before  the  gate. 
What  are  latitude  and  longitude  ? 
Cicero  was  more  eloquent  than  any  other  Roman— or,  Cicero  was  the  most 

eloquent  of  the  Romans. 
Who  dares  apologize  for  Pizarro  %~which  is  but  another  name  for  rapacity. 

LESSON    IV. 

Tell  me  whether  you  will  do  it  or  not. 
After  the  straitest  [or  strictest]  sect,  I  lived  a  Pharisee. 
We  have  no  more  than  five  loaves  and  two  fishes. 
1  know  not  who  it  was  that  did  it. 


KEY   TO   FALSE   SYNTAX.— PROMISCUOUS.  SI7 

Doubt  not,  little  though  there  be, 
'fhat  I'll  cast  a  crumb  to  thee. 

This  rule  is  the  best  that  can  be  given. 

I  have  never  seen  any  other  way. 

These  are  poor  amends  for  the  mea  and  treasures  tJiatvTQ  have  lost. 

Dost  thou  Know  those  boys  ? 

Tliis  is  a  part  oithe  estate  of  my  vncWs  father. 

Many  people  never  learn  to  speak  correctly. 

Some  people  are  rash,  and  others  timid ;  these  apprehend  too  much,  those  too 

little'. 
Is  it  lawful  for  us  to  give  tribute  to  Cresar  or  not  ? 
It  was  not  Avortli  while  i'f  preserve  any  permanent  enmity. 
I  no  sooner  saw  my  face  in  it,  than  I  was  startled  at  the  shortness  of  it. 
Every  person  is  answerable  for  his  own  conduct. 
They  are  men  that  scorn  a  mean  action,  and  that  will  exert  themselves  to 

serve  you. 
1  do  not  recollect  ever  to  have  paid  it — the  payvn<j  cf  it — the  payment  of  li — 

or,  that  I  ever  paid  it. 
Tiie  stoics  taught  that  all  crimes  are  equal. 
Every  one  of  these  theories  is  now  exploded. 
Any  of  these  four  will  answer. 
There  is  no  situation  in  which  he  would  be  happy. 
Tlie  boy  that  you  thought  so  clever,  has  been  detected  ia  stealing. 
1  will  meet  thee  there,  if  thou  please. 
He  is  not  so  sick,  but  that  he  can  laugh. 
These  clothes  do  not  Jit  me. 
The  audience  were  all  very  attentive. 

Wert  thou  some  star,  which  from  the  rnin'd  roof 
Of  shak'd  Olympus  by  mischance  did  fait,  J 

LESSON   V. 

"Was  the  master,  or  were  many  of  the  scholars,  in  the  room  ? 

U'la  father  and  mother's  consent  was  asked. 

Who  is  ho  supposed  to  be  ? 

He  is  a  venerable  old  man. 

It  was  then  my  imrpose  to  visit  Sicily. 

It  is  o?ily  to  the  learner,  and  kim  that  is  in  doubt,  that  this  nssistanco  is  reo. 
ommcnded. 

There  is  not  the  least  hope  of  his  recovery. 

Anger  and  impatience  are  alwnys  unreasonable. 

In  his  letters,  there  is  not  only  correctness,  but  elegance. 

Opportunity  to  do  good  is  the  highest  preferment  that  a  noble  mind  desires* 

Tlie  year  in  which  he  died  is  not  mentioned. 

Hat]  1  knmvn  it,  I  should  not  have  goM. 

"Was  it  thou,  that  spoke  to  me  ? 

The  \\o\\9,e.\?> pleasantly  s\tna.\.Qd.  • 

He  did  it  as  privately  as  he  possibly  could. 

To  subdue  our  passions— 27ie  subduing  of  our  passions— 77«e  subjugation  of 
our  passior» — or,  That  wa  subdue  our  passions,  is  the  noblest  of  conquests-. 

James  is  more  diligent  than  thou. 

"Words  interwoven  with  sighs  found  out  their  way. 

He  appears  to  be  excessively  diffident. 

The  number  of  our  days  is  with  thee. 

Js  a  father  pitieth  his  children,  so  the  Lord  pitieth  them  that  fear  him. 

The  circumstances  of  this  case,  are  different. 

Well  for  us,  if  some  other  suck  men  should  rise  ! 

A  man  that  i-s  young  in  years,  may  be  old  in  hours,  if  he  lose  no  time. 

The  chief  captain,  fearing  ihatl\m\  would  be  pulled  into -piecea  by  them,  com- 
manded the  soldiers  to  go  down,  and  to  take  him  by  force  from  among 
them. 

27* 


S18  INSTITUTES   OF  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

Nay,  -weep  not,  gentle  Eros ;  there  are  left  us 
Ourselves  to  end  ourselves. 

CORRECTIONS   UNDER   THE   GENERAL   RULE. 

Are  there,  then,  more  true  relujmis  than  one  ? 

The  laws  of  Lycurgus  but  substituted  insensibility /or  enjoyment. 

Ram  is  seldom  or  never  seen  at  Lima. 

The  young  bird  raising  its  open  mouth  for  food,  exhibits  a  natural  indication 
of  corporeal  want. 

There  is  much  truth  in  AscJiarrCs  observation. 

Adopting  tho  doctrine  in  which  he  had  been  taught — or,  Adopting  the  doc- 
trine which  had  been  tavght  him. 

This  library. Ci9/itei»«(/  more  than  jicc  hiindred  thovsand  volumes. 

The  Coptic  alphabet  was  one  oi'  the  latest  that  were  formed. 

There  are  many  evidences  of  men's  proneness  to  viJe. 

To  perceive  nothing,  and  not  to  perceive,  are  the  same — or,  To  perceive 
nothing,  is  the  same  as  not  to  perceive. 

The  king  of  France  or  o/"  England,  was  to  be  the  umpire. 

He  may  ^e  said  to  have  save^  the  life  of  a  citizen  ;  and,  consequently,  he  is 
entitled  [or,  to  be  entitled]  to  the  reward. 

The  men  had  made  inquiry  for  Simon's  house,  and  were  standing  before  the 
gate. 

Give  no  more  trouble  than  you  cannot  possibly  help. 

That  the  art  of  printing  was  then  iinhiown,  was  a  circumstance  in  some  re- 
spects favourable  to  the  freedom  of  the  pen. 

An  other  passion  which  the  present  age  is  apt  to  run  into,  is  a  desire  to 
make  children  learn  all  things. 

It  requires  few  talents  to  which  most  men  are  not  born,  or  which,  nt  least, 
the//  may  not  acquire. 

Nor  was  Philip  wanting  in  his  endeavours  to  corrupt  Demosthenes,  as  ho 
had  corrupted  most  of  the  leading  men  in  Greece. 

The  Greeks,  fearing  to  be  surrounded,  wheeled  about  and  halted,  with  the 
river  behind  them. 

Poverty  turns  our  thoughts  too  much  upon  the  supplying  of  our  wants ;  and 
riches,  upon  the  enjoj/ing  of  our  superfluities. 

That  brother  should  not  war  with  brother, 
Hor  one  despise  and  grieve  an  other. 

Such  is  the  refuge  of  our  youth  and  age ; 
At  first  from  hope,  at  last  from  vacancy — or, 
Such  is  the  refuge  of  our  youth  and  age ; 
Of  that  from  hope,  of  this  from  vacancy. 
Triumphant  Sj'lla !  couldst  thou  then  divine. 
By  aught  but  Romans  Rome  should  thus  be  laid  i 


BITD    OP    THE    KEY    TO    THE    ORAL    EXERCISBfi. 


APPENDIX    I. 

(ORTHOGRAPHY.) 

OF  THE  SOUNDS  OF  THE  LETTERS. 

In  the  first  chapter  of  Part  I,  the  powers  of  the  letters,  or  the  elementary 
Bounds  of  the  English  language,  were  duly  enumerated  and  explained  ;  for 
these,  as  well  as  the  letters  themselves,  are  few,  and  may  be  fully  stated  in 
few  words :  but,  since  we  often  express  tlio  same  sound  in  many  different 
ways,  and  also,  in  some  instances,  give  to  the  same  letter  several  different 
Bounds, — or,  it  may  be,  no  sound  at  all, — any  adequate  account  of  the  powers 
of  the  letters  considered  severally  according  to  usage, — that  is,  of  the  sound 
or  sounds  of  each  letter,  with  its  mute  positions,  as  these  occur  in  practice, 
— must,  it  was  thought,  descend  to  a  minuteness  of  detail  not  desirable  in 
the  first  chapter  of  Orthography.  For  this  reason,  the  following  particulars 
have  been  reserved  to  be  given  hero  as  an  Appendix,  pertaining  to  the  First 
Part  of  this  English  Grammar. 

The  terms  long  and  short,  which  are  often  used  to  denote  certain  vowel 
sounds,  being  also  used,  with  a  different  import,  to  distinguish  the  quantity 
of  syllables,  are  frequently  misunderstood  :  tor  which  reason,  we  have  often 
substituted  for  them  the  terms  open  and  close, — the  former,  to  denote  the 
Bound  usually  given  to  a  vowel  when  it  forms  or  ends  an  accented  syllable: 
as,  ba,  be,  bl,  bo,  bu,  %,— the  latter,  to  denote  the  sound  which  the  vowel 
commonly  takes  when  closed  by  a  consonant ;  as,  ab,  eh,  ib,  ob,  ub. 

I.  OF  THE  LETTER  A. 

The  vowel  A  has ybwr*  sounds  properly  its  own: — 

1.  The  English,  open,  or  long  a ;  as  \n  fame,  favour,  eMcacious. 

2.  The  French,  close,  or  short  a  ;  as  in  bat,  banner,  balance. 

3.  The  Italian,  or  middle  a  ;  as  m  far,  father,  alia,  comma,  scoria,  eofa, 

4.  The  Dutch,  Old-Saxon,  or  broad  a  ;  as  in  wall,  warm,  water. 

DIPHTHONGS    BEGINNING    WITH    A. 

The  only  proper  diphthong  in  which  a  is  put  first,  is  the  word  ay,  meaning 
yes  ;  in  which  a  has  its  middle  sound,  and  y  that  oiopen  e. 

Aa,  when  pronounced  as  an  improper  diphthong,  takes  the  sound  of  close 
a  ;  as  in  Balaam,  Cafiaan,  Isaac. 

^,  a  Latin  improper  diphthong,  very  common  also  in  Anglo-Saxon,  gen- 
erally has  the  sound  of  o/ew  or  long  e ;  as  in  Gcesar,  cenigma, p'W-n ;  sometime* 
that  of  close  or  short  e  ;  as  in  aph<eresis,  dioeresis,  et  ccetera.  Some  authors  re- 
ject the  a,  and  write  Cesar,  enigma,  &c. 

Ai,  an  improper  diphthong,  generally  has  the  sound  of  op«/i  or  long  a;  as 
in  vail,  sail,  vain.  In  a  final  unaccented  syllable,  it  sometimes  preserves  the 
first  sound  of  a,  as  iu  chilblain,  mortmain  ;  but  oftener  takes  the  sound  of 
close  or  short  i;  as  in  certain,  curtain,  mountain,  villain:  in  said,  saiih,  again, 
and  against,  that  of  close  e ;  and  in  the  name  Britain,  that  of  close  v. 

Ao,  an  improper  diphthong,  occurs  in  the  word  gaol;  now  frequently 
written,  as  it  is  pronounced,  ,/aiZ;  and  in  the  adjective  extraordinary,  and  ita 
derivatives,  in  which,  according  to  Walker,  the  a  is  silent. 


*  Some  writers  distinguish  from  tlie  first  of  these  sounds  the  grcive  sound  of  * 
heard  in  care,/air,  there,  &c.    But  Walker  teaches  no  diSerenoe. 


820  INSTITUTES   OF  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

All,  an  improper  diphthong,  is  generally  sounded  like  broad  a;  aa  in 
cause,  caught.  Before  n  and  an  other  eousouant,  it  has  the  sound  of  middle 
a;  as  in  aunt,  flaunt,  launch,  laundry.     Gauge  is  pronounced  gage. 

Aiv,  an  improper  diphthong,  is  always  sounded  like  broad  a;  as  in  draw, 
drawn,  draivl. 

Ay,  an  improper  diphthong,  like  ai,  has  the  sound  of  open  or  long  a;  as  in 
day,  pay,  delay :  in  sayst  and  says,  that  of  close  e. 

TRIPHTHONGS    BEGINNING    WITH    A. 

Awe  is  sounded  au,  like  broad  a.  Aye,  an  adverb  signifying  a^way*,  liaa 
the  sound  of  open  a  only,  being  diifereut,  both  in  sound  and  spelling,  from 
the  adverb  ay,  yes,  with  which  it  is  often  carelessly  confoundecf. 

II.  OF  THE  LETTER  B. 

The  consonant  B  has  but  one  sound  ;  as  in  boy,  robber,  cub. 

B  is  silent  before  t  or  after  on  in  the  same  syllable ;  as  in  debt,  debUrr,  doubt, 
dumb,  lamb,  climb,  tomb.  It  is  heard  in  subtile,  fine,  but  not  in  subtle,  cun- 
ning. 

III.  OF  THE  LETTER  C. 

The  consonant  Chas  two  sounds;  the  one  hard,  hke  that  of  I;  the  other 
gqft,  or  rather  hissing,  like  that  of  s. 

G,  before  a,  o,  u,  I,  r,  t,  or  when  it  ends  a  syllable,  is  generally  hard  like  k; 
as  in  can,  come,  curb,  clay,  crab,  act,  action,  accent,  fluccid. 

C  before  e,  i,  or  y,  is  always  soft  hke  s  ;  as  in  cent,  civil,  decency,  acid. 

In  a  few  words  c  takes  the  flat  sound  of  s,  like  that  of  e;  as  in  discern, 
suflice,  sacrifice,  sice. 

C  before  ea,  ia,  ie,  io,  or  eou,  when  the  accent  precedes,  sounds  like  sh  ;  aa 
in  ocean,  special,  species,  gracious,  cetaceous. 

6' is  silent  in  czar,  czarina,  victuals,  indict,  muscle,  corpuscle. 

Oil  is  generally  sounded  like  tch ;  as  in  church,  chance,  child.  But  in  words 
derived  from  the  learned  languages,  it  has  the  sound  of  h;  as  in  character, 
scheme,  catechise,  chorus,  chyle,  patriarch,  drachma,  magna  cJiarta :  except  in 
chart,  charier,  charity.  Gh,  in  words  derived  from  the  French,  takes  tha 
Bound  of  sh  I  as  in  chaise,  machine. 

Arch,  before  a  vowel,  is  pronounced  arlc;  as  in  archives,  archangel,  archi- 
pelago: except  in  arched,  archer,  archery,  archenemy.  Before  a  consonant,  it 
13  pronounced  artchj  as  in  archbishop,  archduke. 

Gh  is  silent  in  schism,  yatch,  drachm;  unsettled  in  schedule. 

IV.  OF  THE  LETTER  D. 

The  general  sound  of  the  consonant  Z>,  ia  heard  in  dog,  eddy,  did. 

D,  in  the  termination  ed,  preceded  by  a  sharp  consonant,  takes  the  sound 
of  t,  when  the  e  is  suppressed :  as  in  faced,  stuffed,  cracked,  tripped,  passed  ; 
pronounced, ,/a«fe,  stujFt,  cract,  tript,  past. 

D  before  ia,  ie,  ia,  or  eou,  when  the  accent  precedes,  generally  sounds  liko 
i ;  as  in  Indian,  soldier,  tedious,  hideous.    So  in  verdure,  arduous,  education, 

V.  OF  THE  LETTER  E. 

The  vowel  ^has  three  sounds  properly  its  own:— 

1.  The  open  or  long;  as  in  m,e,  Tnere,  menial,  melodious. 

2.  The  close  or  short ;  as  in  men,  merry,  ebony. 

S.  The  obscure  or  taint ;  as  in  op«n,  garden,  shovel,  able.  This  third  sound 
is  scarcely  perceptible,  and  is  barely  sufficient  to  articulate  the  consonant 
and  form  a  syllable. 

£  final  is  mute,  and  belongs  to  the  syllable  formed  by  the  preceding  vowel 


APPENDIX  I. — (orthography.) — LETTERS.        321 

or  diphthong ;  as  in  age^  eve,  ice,  ore.  Except — 1.  In  the  words,  he,  he,  me,  we, 
she,  and  (he,  in  which  it  has  the  open  sound.  2.  In  Greek  and  Latin  words, 
in  which  it  has  its  open  sound,  and  forms  a  distinct  syllable;  as  in  Penelope, 
PasipJia'e,  Cyanee,  Gargaphie,  Arsinoe,  apostrophe,  catastrophe,  simile,  extern,' 
j)ore,  epitome.  3.  In  tlie  terminations  ere,  grt,  tre,  in  whicn  it  has  the  sound 
of  dos^e  u  ;  as  in  ac7'e,  meagre,  centre. 

Mute  e,  after  a  single  consonant,  or  after  st  or  th,  generally  preserves  the 
open  or  long  sound  of  the  preceding  vowel ;  as  in  cane,  here,  pine,  cone,  tune, 
thijine,  haste,  clotlie ;  except  in  syllaoles  unaccented;  as  the  hit>t  oi'  genuine f 
and  in  a  few  niouosyllubles ;  as  bade,  are,  icere,  gone,  shone,  one,  done,  give, 
live,  sJiove,  love. 

DIPHTHONGS    BEGINNING   WITH    E. 

^before  an  other  vowel,  in  general,  either  forms  with  it  an  m^rope?- diph- 
thong, or  else  belongs  to  a  separate  syllable. 

Ea,  an  improper  diphthong,  mostly  sounds  like  open  e ;  as  m ear,  fear,  tea: 
frequently,  like  close  e ;  as  in  earl,  head,  health:  sometimes,  like  open  a ;  as  in 
steak,  hear, forswear :  rarely,  like  middle  a;  as  in  heart,  hearth,  hearken.  Ea. 
nuaccentcd,  sounds  like  close  u  :  as  in  vengeance,  pageant. 

Ee,  an  hnproper  diphthong,  has  the  sound  of  open  e;  as  in  eel,  sheep,  tree. 
Tiie  contractions  eVr  and  neVr.,  are  pronounced  air  and  nair. 

El,  an  improper  diphthong,  mostly  sounds  like  open  a;  as  in  reign,  veil: 
frequently,  like  open  e;  as  in  deceit,  either,  neither,  seize:  sometimes,  like  open 
i;  as  iw^helght,  sleight:  often,  in  unaccented  syllables,  like  chse  i;  as  in 
forelgn,foifelt,  surfeit,  sovereign  :  rarely,  like  close  e  ;  as  in  heifer,  nonpareil. 

Eo,  an  improper  diphthong,  m  people  sounds  like  opene ;  m  feoff ,  feojjf^ment, 
leopard,  jeopardy,  like  close  e  ;  in  yeoman,  like  open  o  ;  in  George,  georgic,  like 
close  o,'  in  dungeon,  p^incheon,  sturgeon,  d;c.,  like  close  u.  Feo'd,  fecdal,  feoda- 
tory,  are  now  written  as  they  are  Y>rono\mced,  feud,  fet4dal,  feudatory. 

Eu  and  ew  have  the  diphthongal  sound  of  open  u  ,'  as  in  feud,  deuce  ;  jew, 
dew,  few,  new.  These  diphthongs,  when  initial,  sound  like  yu.  Nouns  be- 
ginning with  this  sound,  require  the  article  a,  and  not  an,  before  them  ;  as, 
A  European,  a  ewer.  After  /•  or  rh,  eu  and  ew  are  commonly  sounded  like 
00  :  as  in  drew,  grew,  screw,  rheumatlsjn. 

In  seiv  and  Shrewsbury,  ew  sounds  like  open  o.  Shew  and  strew  are  prop- 
erly spelled,  as  they  are  most  commonly  pronounced,  show,  straw. 

Ey,  accented,  has  the  sound  oiopen  a  ;  as  in  bey,  prey,  survey :  unaccented, 
it  has  the  soun<l  of  open  e  ;  as  in  alley,  valley,  money.  Key  and  ley  are  pro- 
nounced, kee.  Ice. 

TRIPHTHONGS    BEGINNING    WITH    E. 

Eau,  a  French  triphthong,  sounds  like  openo;  as  in  beau, flambeau, port- 
manteau, bureau :  except  in  beauty,  and  its  compounds,  in  which  it  is  pro- 
nounced like  open  v. 

Eou  is  a  combination  of  vowels  sometimes  heard  in  one  syllable,  especially 
after  c  or  g  ;  as  in  crus-ta-ceous,  gnr  geons.  Walker,  in  his  Rhyming  Diction- 
ary, gives  one  hundred  and  twenty  words  ending  in  eous,  in  all  of  which  he 
separates  these  vowels;  as  m  extra-ne-ous.  And  why,  in  his  Pronouncing 
Dictionary,  he  gave  us  several  such  anomalies  as /a-ia-c«-o?.s  in  four  syllables, 
and  her-ba-ceous  in  three,  it  is  not  easy  to  tell.  The  best  rule  is  this :  after  c 
or  g,  unite  these  vowels;  after  the  other  consonants,  separate  them. 

Ewe  is  a  triphthong  having  the  sound  of  yu.  The  vulgar  pronimciation 
yoe  should  be  carefully  avoided. 

Eye  is  an  impi^oper  triphthong,  pronounced  like  open  i. 

VI.  OF  THE  LETTER  F. 

The  consonant  /'has  one  unvaried  sound,  which  is  heard  in  fan,  effort, 
staJT:  fexcept  (f,  which,  when  simple,  is  pronounced  ov. 

14* 


322  INSTITUTES   OF   ENGLISH   GRAMMAB. 

VII.  OF  TIIE  LETTER  G. 

The  consonant  G  has  two  sounds  ;  the  one  hord^  guttural,  and  peculiar  to 
this  letter  ;  the  other  mft^  like  that  oij. 

G  before  a,  o,  w,  I,  r,  or  at  the  end  of  a  word,  is  hard  ;  as  in  game^  gone, 
gull,  glori/,  grace,  log,  bog. 

6^  before  e,  i,  or  y,  is  soft;  as  in  gem,  ginger,  elegy.  Except— 1.  In  get, 
give,  gewgaw,  Jinger,  and  a  few  other  words.  2.  When  a  syllable  is  addcii  lo 
a  word  ending  in  ^^;  as,  long,  longer ;  /ng,  foggy. 

G  is  silent  before  m  or  n  in  the  same  sv Liable ;  as  in  phlegm,  apothegm, 
gnaw,  resign. 

G,  when  silent,  usually  lengthens  the  preceding  vowel ;  as  in  resign,  im- 
pugn, impregn. 

Gh  at  the  beginning  of  a  word  has  the  sound  of  g  hard ;  as  in  ghost, 
ghostly,  ghastly  :  in  other  situations,  it  is  generally  silent;  as  in  high,  mighty, 
j>lough,  bough,  through. 

Gh  _/inal  sometitnei  sounds  like/";  as  in  laugh,  rough,  tough  :  and  some- 
times',  like  qhard;  <13  in  burgh.  In  Iwngh,  krugh,  shough,  it  sounds  like  t; 
thus,  AoCifc,  lock^  shock. 

VIII.  OF  THE  LETTER  H. 

The  sound  of  the  consonant  //,  (though  articulate  and  audible  when  protv 
erly  uttered,)  is  little  more  than  an  a&pirate  breathing.  It  is  heard  in  hat, 
hit,  hot,  hut,  adhere. 

If  at  the  beginniniT  of  words  is  always  sounded;  except  in  heir,  herb, 
honest,  honour,  hospital,  hostler,  hour,  humble,  humour,  and  their  compounds. 

Rafter  r,  is  alwa3'9  silent;  as  rheum,  rhetoric, 

^final,  preceded  by  a  vowel  in  the  same  syllable,  is  always  silent;  as  in 
ah,  Sarah,  Nin^oeh. 

IX.  OF  THE  LETTER  I. 

The  vowel  /has  three  sounds,  each  perhaps  properly  its  own : — 

1.  The  open  or  long  ;  as  in  life,Jine,  time,  find,  bind,  child,  mild,  wild, pint. 
This  is  a  diphthongal  sound,  and  is  equivalent  to  th«  sound  of  middle  a  and 
that  of  open,  e  quickly  united. 

2.  The  close  or  short ;  as  in  ink,  think,  sinking. 

S.  The  feeble;  as  in  divest,  doctrinal,  diversity.  This  sound  is  equivalent 
to  that  of  ojjen,  e  uttered  feebly,  /generally  has  this  sound  when  it  occur.^ 
at  the  end  of  an  unaccented  syllable :  except  at  the  end  of  Latin  words, 
where  it  is  open  or  long ;  _  as  in  literati.  In  some  words,  (principally  from 
other  modern  languages,)  *  has  the  full  sound  oiopen  e,  under  the  accent;  a3 
in  Poj-to  Rico,  machine,  magazine,  antique,  shire. 

Accented  i  followed  by  a  vowel,  has  its  open  sound ;  and  the  vowels  be- 
long to  separate  syllables  ;    as  in  pliant,  diet,  satiety,  violet,  pious. 

Unaccented  i  followed  by  a  vowel,  has  its  feeble  Bouna ;  as  in  expatiate, 
obedient,  ■various,  abstemious, 

DIPHTHONGS   BEGINNING   TVITH   I, 

/  in  the  situation  last  described,  readily  coalesces  with  the  vowel  which 
fi)llow3,  and  is  often  sunk  into  the  same  syllable,  forming  a  proper  diph- 
thong ;  as  in  fustian,  quotient,  gvestion.  The  terminations  cirm,  sion.  au J 
tion,  are  generally  pronounced  shun  ;  cious  and  tious  are  pronounced  shus. 

le  is  commonly  an  improper  diphthong.  le  final  has  the  sound  of  open  i; 
fis  in  die,  lie,  pie,  fie.  ■  le  medial  generally  has  the  sound  of  open  e ;  as  in 
grief,  thief,  grenadier.  In  friend  and  its  compounds,  it  takes  the  sound  of 
close  e. 

TRIPHTHONGS   BEGINNING    WITH    I. 

The  triphthongs  ieu  and  iew,  sound  like  open  uj  as  in  litiu,  adieu,  view,  re" 

view. 


APPENDIX  I. — (orthography.) — LETTERS.        823 

The  tlircc  vowels  iou,  in  the  termination  ious,  often  fall  into  one  syllabla 
nnd  form  a  triphthong.  There  are  two  hundred  and  forty-five  words  of  this 
ending ;  and  more  than  two  hundred  derivatives  from  them.  Walker  has 
several  puzzling  inconsistencies  in  their  pronunciation  ;  such  a,s  fas-tid-i-ous 
and  per-Jid-Mtis,  con-ta  gi-ous  and  sac-ri-le-qious.  After  c,  g,  t,  or  x,  these 
vowels  should  coalesce  ;  as  in  gra-cious,  re-li-giou^,  vex-a-twus,  ob-nox-ious, 
and  about  two  hundred  other  words.  After  the  other  consonants,  let  them 
form  two  syllables  ;  (except  when  there  is  a  synaeresia  in  poetry ;)  as  in  du- 
l/i-ous,  o-di-oits,  va-ri-ous,  en-vi-ous. 

X.  OF  THE  LETTER  J. 

The  consonant  t7  always  has  the  sound  of  soft  g,  or  of  dzh  ;  as  \njoy,  jewel' 
except  iu  hallelujah,  better  written  as  it  is  pronounced,  halleluiah. 

XI.  OF  THE  LETTER  K. 

The  consonants  has  the  sound  o^  chard;  and  occurs  where  c  would  have 
its  soft  sound :  as  in  keep,  kind,  STnoky. 

S before  n  is  silent;  as  iu  knave,  know,  knuckle.  It  is  never  doubled  in 
simple  English  words ;  but  two  Kays  may  come  together  in  certain  com- 
pounds, or  in  the  separate  syllables  of  some  Hebrew  names ;  as,  brickkiln, 
fackknife,  Akkitb,  Buhki,  Habakkuk.  C  before  it  doubles  the  sound,  ana 
shortens  the  preceding  vowel ;  as  in  cockle,  wicked. 

Xn.  OF  THE  LETTER  L. 

The  consonant  L  has  a  soft  liquid  sound ;  as  in  line.  My,  roll,  follow. 

L  is  Bomeiimes  silent ,  us  in  almi^,  almond,  calf,  chalk,  could,  would,  should, 

XIII.  OF  THE  LETTER  M. 

The  consonant  M  has  but  one  sound  ;  as  in  map,  mnrmur,  mammon.  M 
before  n,  at  the  beginning  of  a  word,  is  silent ;  as  iu  MnMson^  Mnemosyne, 
mnemonics.     Comptroller  is  pronounced  cmitroller. 

XIV.  OF  THE  LETTER  N. 

The  consonant  iVhas  two  sounds  :  the  pure  ;  as  in  nun,  banner,  cannon  ; 
and  the  ringing  sound  of  ng  ;  as  in  think,  mangle,  conquer,  congress,  singing, 
tivinhling.  The  latter  sound  should  be  carefully  preserved  in  all  words  end- 
ing in  ing  ;  and  in  such  others  as  require  it. 

A^/J?ia4  preceded  by  m,  is  silent;  as  in  hymn,  solemn. 

XV.  OF  THE  LETTER  O. 

The  vowel  0  has  three  sounds  properly  its  own :  — 

1.  The  open  or  long  ;  as  in  no,  mite,  opiate,  opacity,  domain. 

2.  The  close  or  short ;  as  in  not,  nor,  torrid,  dollar. 
8.  The  slender ;  as  in  prove,  move,  who,  to,  do,  toi>ib. 

O  in  many  words  sounds  like  close  u  ;  as  in  hve,  shove,  son,  come,  nothing, 
dost,  attorney,  gallon,  dragon.  In  the  termination  on  immediately  after  the 
accent,  o  is  often  sunk  into  a  sound  scarcely  perceptible  like  that  of  obscure 
«;  as  in  mason,  person.     One  is  pronounced  iviui ;  and  once,  wimce. 

DIPHTHONGS    BEGINNING    WITH    O. 

Ca,  an  improper  diphthong,  has  the  sound  of  open  o;  as  mboat,coal,  roach: 
except  in  broad  and  groat,  which  have  the  soundi  of  broad  a. 


824  INSTITUTES   OF   ENGLISH   GJlAMMAB. 

0«,  an  improper  diphthong,  when  final,  hns  the  sound  of  openo;  as  in 
doe,/ue,  throe:  except  in  canoe,  nhue,  prououuced  carwo,  sTioo.  (E,  a  Latin 
dipiitliong,  genendiy  sounds  like  open  e ;  as  lu  A/Ucfci,  fitxtus :  sometimes, 
like  close  e ;  as  m.  foetid.     Soinc  autliois  i eject  tlie  f,  autl  wrAti fetid,  &e. 

Oi  is  generally  ft  proper  diphthong,  uniting  tiie  sound  o(  close  o  or  broad  a, 
and  tliat  of  open  e ;  as  in  boil,  coil,  "soil,  rejoice.  But  the  vowels  sometimes 
belon"-  to  separate  syllables:  as  in  stoic.  Oi  unaccented,  Bometimes  has  tho 
souncfof  close  i;  as  in  avoirdupois,  connoisseur,  tortoise.  Choir  is  now  fre- 
quently written  as  it  is  pi  onouuced,  quire. 

00.  an  improper  diphthong,  generally  has  the  slender  sound  of  o  ;  as  in 
coo,  too,  woo,  fool,  room.  It  lias  a  shorter  sound  in  foot,  good.,  wood,  stood, 
wool;  that  oi  close  v,  in  blood  andjlood^  and  that  of  ope^i  o,  in  door  un^Jio/r. 

Ou  is  generally  a  proper  diplithong,  uniting  the  sound  of  close  o,  and  that 
cf  M  sounded  as  slender  o  or  oo  ;  is  hi  lound  found  sound,  ounce,  thou. 
Ou  is  also  an  improper  diphthong  ;  and  as    such,  it  has  sis  sounds: — 

1.  That  of  close  u  ;  as  in  rough,  tough,  young,  llourish, 

2.  Tliat  of  broad  a;  as  in  ought,  bought,  thought. 

3.  That  of  open  o;  as  in  court,  dough,  four,  though. 

4.  That  of  close  o  ;  only  in  couoh,  trough,  lough,  shnigh. 

5.  That  of  shnder  o  or  oo ;  as  ni  soup,  you,  through. 

6.  That  of  00,  shortened;  only  in  would,  could,  should. 

Ow  generally  sounds  like  the  proper  diphtliong  ou  ;  as  in  brotvn,  dowry, 
now,  shower:  but  it  often  has  the  sound  of  open  o  ;  as  in  know,  show,  stow. 
Oy  id  sounded  like  oi  y  as  in  joy,  toy. 

TRIPHTHONGS    BKGINNING    AVITH    O. 

Oeu  is  a  French  triphthong  occurring  in  the  word  manoeuvre,  which  is  pro- 
nounced in  English  man-oo-vur.  Oive  is  an  improper  triphthong,  in  which 
the  o  only  is  heard,  and  with  its  long  open  sound. 

XVI.  OF  THE  LETTER  P. 

The  consonant  P  has  but  one  sound  ;  which  is  heard  '\\\  pen,  sup,  supper. 
It  is  sometimes  silent ;  as  in  psalm,  receipt,  co?ps. 

PA  generally  sounds  like/ ;  as  m  philosophy,  ^n  Stephen  and  nephew,  ph 
has  the  sound  of  v.  The  h  after  ^,  is  silent  in  diphthong,  triphthong,  naphtha, 
opUhalniic ;  and  both  the  p  and  the  h  are  silent  in  apophthegm,  ptiihisis, 
phthisical.    Erom  the  last  three  words,  ph  is  sometimes  dropped. 

XVII.  OF  THE  LETTER  Q. 

The  consonant  Q  has  the  sound  of  Z-,  and  is  always  followed  by  the  vowel 
«,  which,  in  words  purely  English,  is  sounded  like  iv;  as  in  queen,  quarter, 
request.  In  some  words  of  French  origin,  the  w  is  silent ;  as  in  coquet,  liquor, 
burlesque. 

XVIII.  OF  THE  LETTER  R. 

The  consonant  i?,  at  the  beginrang  of  words,  has  a  rough  sound;  as  in 
rose,  roam;  iu  other  situations,  a  smoother  one  ;  as  in  proud,  harrow,  barber. 

XIX.  OF  THE  LETTER  S. 

The  consonant  S  has  a  sharp,  hissing  sound ;  as  in  sad,  sister,  thus :  and  a 
fiat  sound,  like  that  of  z ;  as  in  rose,  dismal. 

S,  at  the  beginning  of  words,  or  after  any  of  the  sharp  consonants,  is  al- 
ways sharp ;  as  in  see,  steps,  cliffs,  sits,  stocks,  smiths. 

S,  after  any  of  the  flat  mutes,  or  at  the  end  of  words  when  not  preceded 
by  ft  sharp  consonant,  ia  generalij  flat ;  as  in  eyes,  trees,  beds,  bags,  calves.  iSa 
is  generally  sharp. 


APPENDIX   I. — (oRTUOG1;APHY.)— LETTEKS.         S25 

S,  in  the  termination  sion,  takes  the  sound  of  sh,  after  a  consonant ;  as  in 
aapersion,  session  ;  and  that  of  zh,  after  a  vowel ;  as  in  invasion,  elision. 
S  ia  silent  in  isle,  island,  aisU,  demesne,  viscount. 

XX.  OF  THE  LETTER  T. 

The  general  sound  of  tho  consonant  T,  is  heard  in  time,  letter,  set. 

T,  immediately  after  the  accent,  takes  the  sound  of  tch,  before  u,  and  gen-" 
erally  also  before  eou :  as  in  nature,  feature,  virtue,  rir/kteotis,  courteous :  when 
«  or  ,c  precedes,  it  takes  this  sound  before  ia  or  w;  as  in  fustian,  bastion, 
mixtion.  But  the  general  sound  of  t  after  the  accent,  when  followed  by  i  and 
an  other  vowel,  is  that  of  sk;  as  iu  creation,  patient,  cautious. 

T'm  sometimes  silent;  as  in  cflen,  rustle,  wliistle. 

Th  represents  an  elementary  sound.  It  is  either  sharp,  as  in  thing,  ethical, 
thinketh,'  or  flat,  as  m  thi^,  ivhither,  thither. 

Th  initial  is  sharp  ;  as  iu  thank:  except  in  than,  that,  the,  thee,  their,  them, 
then,  thence,  there,  these,  they,  thine,  this,  thither,  those,  thou,  thus,  thy.  and  their 
compounds. 

Tn final  is  also  sharp;  as  in  south:  except  in  beneath,  booth,  with,  and  sev- 
eral verbs  in  th,  whicli  are  frequently  (and  more  properly)  written  with  final 
e ;  as  in  soothe,  smooihe,  bequeathe. 

Th  medial  is  sharp,  when  preceded  or  followed  by  a  consonant;  as  in 
sioartht/,  athwart :  except  in  brethren.,  burthen,  fartJicr,  farthing,  murther, 
northern,  worthy. 

Th  between  two  vowels,  is  generally  flat  in  words  purely  English;  as  in 
gather,  neither,  whither :  and  sharp  in  words  from  the  learned  languages  ;  as 
in  atheist,  ether,  method. 

7%  in  Thames,  Thomas,  thyme,  asthma,  p'thisic,  and  their  compounds,  ia 
pronounced  like  t, 

XXI.  OF  THE  LETTER  U. 

The  vowel  U  has  three  sounds  properly  its  own : — 

1.  The  open,  long,  or  diphthongal ;  as  in  tube,  cubic,  juvenile. 

2.  The  close  or  short ;   as  iu  tub,  butter,  justice. 

3.  The  middle  ;  as  in  pull,  pulpit,  artful. 

^forming  a  syllable  by  itself,  is  nearly  equivalent  in  sound  to  you,  and 
requires  tho  article  a,  and  not  an,  before  it;  as,  a  union. 

Bury  and  busy  are  pronounced  berry,  bizzy.    Their  compounds  are  similar. 

After  r  or  rh,  open  u,  and  the  diphthongs  ve  and  ui,  take  the  sound  of  oo ; 
as  in  ?'U(ie,  rhubarb,  rue,  rueful,  fruit,  fruitful. 

DIPHTHONGS    BEGINNING   WITH    U. 

C,  in  the  proper  diphthongs  wa,  ve,  ui,  vo,  uy,  has  the  sound  of  w,  or  oo 
feeble  ;  as  m  persuade,  query,  quell,  quiet,  languid,  quote,  obloquy. 

Z7a,  an  improper  diphthong,  has  the  sound — 1.  oi  middle  a ;  as  m  guard, 
guardian'  2.  of  close  a ;  as  in  guarantee,  piquant :  3.  of  obscure  e  ;  us, ' in  vic- 
iaals  and  its  compounds  :  4,  of  open  u  ;  as  in  mantuamaJcer. 

Ue,  an  improper  diphthong,  has  the  sound — 1.  of  open  u  ;  as  in  blue,  ensue, 
ague:  2.  of  close  e;  as  in  guest:  3.   of  obscure  e;  as  in  league,  antique. 

Ui,  an  improper  diplithong,  has  the  sound — 1.  of  open  i;  as  guide,  guile: 
2.  of  close  i;  as  in  conduit,  circuit:  3.  of  open,  u;  as,  in  juice,  suit. 

Uy,  an  improper  diphthong,  has  the  sound — 1.  of  open  y  ;  as  in  buy:  2.  ot 
feeble  y,  or  open  e  feeble ,  as  in  plaguy. 

TRIPHTHONGS    BEGINNING   WITH    U. 

Uai  is  pronounced  like  way  ;  as  in  gtiai-a-cum,  quail,  quaint. 
Uato  IS  sounded  like  wa  in  water ;  as  in  squaw,  a  female  Indian. 
Uay  has  the  sound  of  way,  as  in  Pa-ra-guay  •  except  iu  quay,  which  Walkes 
prououuoea  Jcee. 

28 


C26  INSTITUTES   OF   ENGLISH   GRAMMAR, 

Uea  and  uee.  are  sounded  wee ;  as  in  queasy,  queer,  squeal,  squeeze. 
Uoi  and  uoy  are  sounded  woi ;  as  in  quoit,  buoy. 

XXII.  OF  THE  LETTER  V. 

The  consonant  F  always  has  a  sound  like  that  of /flattened;  as  in  lote, 
vulture.    It  is  never  silent. 

XXIII.  OF  THE  LETTER  W. 

W,  as  a  consonant,  has  the  sound  heard  in  wine,  win,  being  a  sound  lesa 
vocal  *han  that  of  oo,  and  depending  more  upon  the  lips. 

W  before  h,  is  pronounced  as  if  it  followed  the  h ;  as  in  whit,  whe?i.  Be- 
fore r  it  is  always  silent ;  as  in  wrath,  wrench :  so  in  wlwle,  whoop,  swm-d, 
answer,  two.  . 

JTis  never  used  alone  as  a  vowel ;  except  in  some  Welsh  names,  m  which 
it  is  equivalent  to  oo ;  as  in  Owm  Cothy.  In  a  diphthong,  when  heard,  it  has 
the  power  of  w  ;  as  in  hrow :  but  it  is  frequently  silent;  as  injiow,  snow,  d;c. 

W,  when  sounded  before  vowels,  being  reckoned  a  consonant,  we  have  no 
diphthongs  or  triphthongs  beginning  with  this  letter. 

XXIV.  OF  THE  LETTER  X. 

The  consonant  A' has  a  sharp  sound,  like  is;  as  in  ox:  and  &j^t  one,  like 
gz ;  as  in  example. 

Xis  sharp,  when  it  ends  an  accented  syllable;  as  in  exit,  excellence:  or 
when  it  precedes  an  accented  syllable  beginning  with  a  consonant ;  as  in 
expound,  expunge. 

Xunaccented,is  generally  flat  when  the  next  syllable  begins  with  a  vowel; 
as  in  exist,  exotic.  ^ 

X initial,  in  Greek  proper  names,  has  the  sound  of  s;  as  in  Xanthus,  Xan- 
tippe,  Xeiiophon,  Xerxes, 

XXV.  OF  THE  LETTER  Y. 

Y,  as  a  consonant,  has  the  sound  heard  in  yard,  youth ;  being  rather  lesa 
vocal  than  the  feeble  sound  of  i  or  y,  and  serving  merely  to  modify  that  of  a 
eucceeding  vowel,  with  which  it  is  quickljr  united. 

r,  aa  a  vowel,  has  the  same  sounds  as  t : — 

1.  The  open  or  long ;  as  in  cry,  thyme,  cycle. 

2,  The  close  or  short ;  as  in  system,  symptiym,  cynic. 

S.  The  feeble;  (like  open  e feeble  ;)  as  in  cymar,  cycloidal,  mercy. 

The  vowels  i  and  y  have,  in  general,  exactly  the  same  sound  under  similar 
circumstances ;  and,  in  forming  derivatives,  we  often  change  one  for  the 
other :  as  in  city,  cities ;  tie,  tying  ;  easy,  easily. 

Y,  before  a  vowel  heard  in  the  same  syllable,  is  reckoned  a  consonant ;  wo 
have,  therefore,  no  diphthongs  or  triphthongs  commencing  with  this  letter. 

XXVI.  OF  THE  LETTER  Z. 

The  consonant  >^  always  has  the  sound  otsfiat;  aa  in  breezcy  zenith. 


APPENDIX    II. 

(ETYMOLOGY.) 

OF  THE  DERIVATION  OF  WORDS. 

Derivation  is  a  species  of  Etymology,  ■wliich  explains  the  various  metbods 
by  which  those  derivative  words  which  arc  not  formed  by  mere  grammatical 
inflections,  are  deduced  from  their  primitives. 

Most  of  those  words  which  are  regarded  as  primitives  in  English,  may  bo 
traced  to  ulterior  sources,  and  many  of  thein  are  found  to  be  compounds  or 
derivatives  in  other  languages.  A  knowledge  of  the  Saxon,  Latin,  Greek, 
find  French  languages,  will  throw  much  light  on  this  subject.  But  as  the 
learner  is  supposed  to  be  unacquainted  with  those  languages,  we  shall  not 
go  beyond  the  precincts  of  our  own ;  except  to  show  him  the  origin  and 
primitive  import  of  some  of  our  definitive  and  connecting  particles,  and  to 
explain  the  prefixes  and  terminations  which  are  frequently  employed  to  tbrm 
Eiiglish  derivatives. 

The  rude  and  cursory  languages  of  barbarous  nations,  to  whom  literature 
is  unknown,  are  among  those  transitory  things  which,  by  the  hand  of  time, 
are  irrecoverably  buried  in  oblivion.  The  ftibric  of  the  English  language  is 
undoubtedly  of  Saxan  origin  ;  but  wliat  was  the  form  of  the  language  spoken 
by  the  Saxons,  when  about  the  year  450  they  entered  Britain,  cannot  now  be 
accurately  known.  It  w;is  probably  a  dialect  of  the  Gothic  or  Teutonic.  This 
Anglo-Saxon  dialect,  being  the  nucleus,  received  large  accessions  from  other 
tongues  of  the  north,  from  the  Norman  French,  and  from  the  more  polished 
languages  of  Rome  and  Greece,  to  form  the  modern  Fnglish.  The  speech  of 
our  rude  and  warlike  ancestors  thus  gradually  improved,  as  Ohnstianity, 
civilization,  and  knowledge,  advanced  the  arts  of  life  in  Britain  ;  and,  as 
early  as  the  tenth  century,  it  became  a  language  capable  of  expressing  all  the 
sentiments  of  a  civilized  people.  From  the  time  of  Alfred,  its  progress  may 
be  traced  by  means  of  writings  which  remain  ;  but  it  can  scarcely  be  called 
Englwh  till  about  the  thirteenth  century.  And  for  two  or  three  centuries 
later,  it  was  so  different  from  the  modern  English,  as  to  be  scarcely  intelli- 
gible to  most  readers ;  but,  gradually  improving  by  means  upon  which  we 
cannot  here  dilate,  it  at  length  became  what  we  now  find  it,  a  language,  copi- 
ous, strong,  refined,  and  capable  of  no  inconsiderable  degree  of  harmony. 

The  following  is  an  explanation  of  tlio  Saxon  letters  employed  below  : 

abcdefghijklmnop        q 

cp 


c         b 

e 

F 

S     h 

1 

k 

1 

ni        n        0 

r 

s 

t 

th 

u 

V 

W        X 

y     z- 

n 

r 

c 

£  or  }) 

u 

V 

V       ^ 

y      z 

SECTION   I, 

■DERIVATION 

OF 

THE 

ARTICLES, 

1.  According  to  Home  Tooke,  the  is  the  Saxon  5e  from  Rean  to  take;  and  Is 
nearly  equivalent  in  meaning  to  that  or  those.  We  find  it  written  in  ancient 
works,  re,  se,  see,  ye,  ce,  &e,  \<i,  and  che  ;  and,  tracing  it  through  what  we 
Buppose  to  be  the  oldest  of  these  forms,  we  rather  consider  it  the  imperative 
of  reon  to  see. 

2.  An  is  the  Saxon  cpn,  ane,  an,  one  ;  and,  by  droppini*  n  before  a  conso- 
nant, becomes  a.  Gawin  Douglas,  an  ancient  English  writer,  wrote  ane,  even 
before  a  eonsonant;  as,  ''■Ane  book,"— "^/le  lang  spere,"— 'Mne  volume," 


828  INSTITUTES   OF  ENGLISH   GKAMMAR. 


SECTION  II. — DERIVATION   OF  NOUNS. 

In  English,  Nouns  are  derived  from  uouos,  from  adjectives,  from  verba, 
or  from  participles. 

I.  Nouus  are  derived  from  Mnms  m  several  different  ways ; — 

1.  By  adding  ship,  dom,  ri:,  wick,  or,  ate,  hood,  or  head:  as,  fellow,  fellmv* 
ship;  king,  kingdcm  •  bishop},  bishopric;  bailiff,  or  bailu,  bailiwick;  senate, 
senator;  tefrarch,  tetrarchate ;  child,  childhood;  God,  Godhead.  Tliese  geuo* 
rally  denote  dominion,  otiice,  or  character. 

2.  By  adding  ian:  as,  music,  musician ;  physic,  physician.  Thcoe  gcnc' 
rally  denote  profession. 

3.  By  adding  y  or  f'/-?/ ;  as,  slave,  slavery  ;  fool,  fvolcry ;  scenf,  scenery;  cut-- 
ler,  cutlery;  grocer,  grocery.  These  sometimes  denote  a  state,  or  habit  of 
action ;  sometimes,  an  artiricer's  wares  or  shop. 

4.  By  adding  age  or  ade :  as,  patron,  patronage ;  porter,  poi'terage ;  band, 
bandage;  lemon,  lemonade. 

5.  By  adding  kin,  let,  ling,  ock,  el,  or  e7'el:  as,  lamb,  lambkin;  river,  rivu' 
let;  duck,  duckling;  hill,  hillock;  run,  runnel;  cock,  cockerel.  These  deuoto 
little  things,  and  are  called  diminntivcs. 

6.  By  adding  ist:  as,  psabn,  psal/nistj  botany,  botanist.  These  denote 
persons  devoted  to,  or  skilled  in,  the  subject  ex[)ress(;J  by  the  primitive. 

7.  By  prefixing  an  adjective,  or  an  other  noun,  and  torniing  a  compound 
word;  as,  holiday, foreman,  statesman,  tradesman. 

8.  By  prefixing  dis,  m,  non,  or  vn,  to  reverse  the  moaning :  as,  order,  dis- 
order ;  consistency,  inconsistency  ;  observance,  nonobservance ;  truth,  untruth. 

9.  By  prefixing  counter,  signifying  against  or  opposite:  as,  attraction, 
counter-attraction;  bond,  counter-bond. 

10.  By  adding  ess,  ix,  or  ine,  to  change  masculines  to  feminines :  as,  hetr, 
heiress  ;  prophet,  prophetess ;  abbot,  abbess  ;  testator,  testatrix  ;  hero,  heroine. 

11.  Nouns  are  derived  from  Adjectives  in  several  different  ways : — 

1.  By  addin^  rtess,  ity,  ship,  dom,  or  hood:  &&,good,  goodness ;  real,  reality  ; 
hard,  hardship '^  wise,  trisdom  ;  false,  falsehood. 

2.  By  changing  t  into  ce  or  cy:  as,  radiant,  radiance ;  consequent,  co?ise- 
quence ;  fiagi'ant,  flagrancy ;  current,  currency. 

3.  By  changing  some  of  the  letters,  and  adding  t  or  th :  as,  Iotkj,  length ; 
broad,  breadth  ;  hi-gh,  height.  The  nouns  included  under  these  three  heads, 
generally  denote  abstract  qualities,  and  are  called  abstrnct  nouns. 

4.  By  adding  ard:  as,  drunk,  drunkard;  dull,  dullard.  These  denota 
the  character  of  a  person. 

5.  By  adding  ist :  as,  sensual,  sensualist ;  royal,  royalist.  These  denote 
persons  devoted,  adi'cted,  or  attached,  to  something. 

6.  By  adding  a,  the  Latin  endinec  of  neuter  plurals,  to  certain  proper  ad- 
jectives in  an  :  as,  Miltonian,  Miltoniana  ;  i.  e.,  Miltonian  things — matters 
relating  to  Milton. 

III.  Nouns  are  derived  from  Verbs  in  several  different  ways : — 

1.  By  adding  ment,  ance,  vre,  or  age:  as,  punish,  punishment ;  repent,  re- 
pentance;  forfeit,  forfeiture  ;  stow,  stowage;  equip,  equipage. 

2.  By  changing  the  termination  of  the  verb,  into  se,  ce,  sion,  iion,  ation,  or 
ition:  as,  expand,  expanse,  expansion;  pretend,  pretence,  pretension;  invent, 
invention  ;  create,  creation  ;  omit,  omission ;  provide,  provision  ;  reform^  refor- 
mation;  oppose,  opposition.  These  denote  the  act  of  doing,  or  the  tningj 
done. 

3.  By  adding  er  or  or:  as,  hunt,  hunter;  write,  writer;  collect,  collector. 
These  generally  denote  the  doer. 

4.  Nouns  and  verbs  are  sometimes  alike  in  orthography,  but  different  in 
pronunciation  :  as,  a  house,  to  house  ;  a  reb'el,  to  i-eheV  ;  a  rec'ord,  to  record'. 
Sometimes  they  are  wholly  alike,  and  are  distinguished  only  by  the  con- 
struction :  as,  love,  to  love;  fear,  to  fear  ;  sleep,  to  sleep. 

IV  Nouns  are  often  derived  from  Participles  in  ing.  Such  nouns  are 
usually  distinguished  from  participles,  only  by  their  'construction :  as,  i| 
meeting,  the  understanding,  murmurvngs,  dispuiings. 


APPENDIX   II. — (ETYMOLOGY.) — DEllIVATION.      329 

SECTION   III. — DERIVATION   OF   ADJECTIVES. 

In  Fnglish,  Adjectives  are  derived  from  nouns,  from  adjectives,  from 
Verba,  or  from  participles. 

I.  Adjectives  arc  derived  from  Koitns  in  several  different  •n-ays: — 

1.  By  adding  ««.?,  ions,  eoun^  ?/,  ey,  ic,  al,  ical,  or  i/i<- :  (sometimes  with  nn 
omission  or  chanije  of  some  of  the  final  letters:)  as,  dawjer,  dangermis ; 
glory,  glorioua  ;  right.,  righteous'  rock,  rocky  ;  clay,  cluynj ;  poet,  poetic  ;  vn~ 
tion,  imtioiutl ;  method,  methodical;  vertex,  vertical;  clergy,  clerical ;  ada- 
m,ant,  adamantine.  Adjectives  thus  formed,  generally  apply  the  propertioa 
of  their  primitives  to  the  nouns  to  which  they  relate. 

2.  By  adding /w^.-  as,  fear,  fearful ;  cheer,  cheerful;  grace,  graceful. 
These  denote  abundanc-e. 

3.  By  adding  «ow«;  as,  burden,  burdensome  ;  game,  gamesome.  These  de- 
note plenty,  but  with  some  diminution. 

4.  By  adding  en :  as,  oak,  oaken ;  silk,  silken.  These  generally  denote  tha 
matter  of  which  a  thing  is  made. 

5.  By  adding /y  or  M'7i  .•  aa,  friend,  friendly  ;  child,  childish.  These  denote 
resemblance ;  for  ly  signiiics  like. 

6.  By  siddms;  able  or  ible :  an,  fashion,  fashionable  ;  access,  accessible.  But 
these  terminations  are  generally  added  to  verbs. 

7.  By  adding  less:  as,  house,  houseless;  death,  deathless.  These  denots 
privation  or  exemption. 

8.  Adjectives  from  proper  names,  take  various  terminations  :  as,  America, 
American;  England,  English;  Dane,  Danish;  Portugal,  Portuguese ;  Plato, 
Platonic. 

9.  By  adding  ed:  as,  saint,  sainted;  bigot,  bigoted.  These  are  partieitnal, 
and  are  often  joined  with  other  adjectives  to  form  compounds ;  iis,  three- 
eided,  bare-footed,  long-eared,  hundred-handed,  flat-nosed. 

10.  Nouns  are  often  converted  into  adjectives,  without  change  of  termina- 
tion :  as,  paper  currency ;  a  gold  chain. 

11.  Adjectives  are  derived  from  Adjectives  in  several  diftercnt  ways : — 

1.  By  adding  ish  or  some:  as,  white,  wJiitish  ;  lone,  lonesome.  These  denoto 
quality  witli  some  diminution. 

2.  By  prefixing  dis,  in,  or  vn :  as,  honest,  dishonest ;  consistent,  inconsis- 
tent;  wise,  -unwise.  These  express  a  negation  of  the  quality  denoted  by 
their  primitives. 

3.  By  adding  y  or  ly :  as,  sxvarth,  swarthy ;  good,  goodly.  Of  these  there 
are  but  few  ;  for  lUmo^t  all  derivatives  of  the  latter  form,  are  adverbs. 

III.  Adjectives  are  derived  from  Verbs  in  several  diSerent  ways: — 

1.  By  adding  able  or  ible :  (sometimes  with  a  change  of  some  of  the  final 
letters:)  as,  perish,  perishetble ;  vary,  variable;  convert,  convertible;  divide, 
divisible.    These  denote  susceptibility. 

2.  By  adding  ive  or  ory:  (sometimes  with  a  change  of  some  of  the  final 
letters':)  »s,  elect,  elective;  interrogate,  interrogative,  interrogatory;  defend, 
defensive ;  defame,  defamatory. 

8.  "Words  ending  in  ate,  are  mostly  verbs :  but  some  of  them  may  be  em- 
ployed as  adjectives,  in  the  same  form,  especially  in  poetry :  as,  reprobate.^ 
complicate. 

IV.  Adjectives  are  derived  from  ParticipUs  in  the  following  ways  : — 

1.  By  prefixing  un :  as,  unyielding,  unregarded,  undeserved. 

2.  By  combining  the  participle  with  some  word  whicli  does  not  belong  to 
the  verb  ;  as,  ivay-faring,  hollow-sounding,  long-drawn. 

3.  Participles  otlen  become  adjectives  without  change  of  form.  Such  ad- 
jectives are  distinguished  from  participles  only  by  the  construction  :  as,  "  A 
tasting  ornament ;" — "  The  starving  chj  mist ;" — "  Words  of  learned  length." 

SECTION   IV. — DERIVATION   OF  THE   PRONOUNS. 

T.  The  English  Pronouns  are  all  of  Saxon  origin.  The  following  appears 
to  be  their  derivation  : — 

28* 


me; 

«•«, 

owr    or  owra, 

««. 

me ; 

Pe, 

\1J1C, 

Uf. 

ihee; 

ye, 

^^wr  or  yours, 

2^o«. 

be; 
Mm  ; 

eopeji, 

fMr  or  theirs, 

them. 

)iim ; 
her  / 

they, 

hlpa,  or  heojia, 
<7ieir  or  theirs. 

hem. 
them. 

heji; 

it; 

hi, 

hirpa,  or  heopa, 
their  or  theirs. 

hem. 
them. 

liic  ; 

hi, 

lujia,  or  lieojia, 

hem. 

SoO  INSTITUTES   OF  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

Eng.  /,        T)Oj  or  mine, 

Sax.    ic,  mil), 

Eng.  thov,  iliy  or  /^i'«e, 

Sax.    bii,  Bin, 

Eng.  Ae,  7jw, 

Sax.    he,  hyr, 

Eng.  «A<;,    her,  or  /i!fr«, 

Sax.    heo,   liejia  or  hyjia, 

Eng.  it,  its, 

Sax.    liiC,  liyr, 

The  plurals  and  oblique  cases  do  not  all  appear  to  be  regular  derivatives 
from  the  nominative  singular.  Many  of  these  pronouns,  as  well  as  a  vast 
luimber  of  other  words  of  frequent  use  in  the  language,  were  variously  writ- 
ten by  the  old  English  and  Anglo-Saxon  authors.  He  who  traces  the  history 
of  our  language  will  meet  with  them  under  all  the  following  forms,  and  per- 
haps more : — 

1.  I,  J,  Y,  y,  y,  1,  ic,  che,  ich,  ic ; — irr,  mi,  min,  mine,  myne,  myn,  myn ; — 
ME,  mee,  me,  meh,  mec,  mech; — we,  wee,  ve,  pe; — our  or  ours,  oure,  upe, 
nre,  urin,  uren,  uriie,  user,  usser,  usses,  usse,  ussum ;— us,  ous,  vs,  up,  uss, 
usie,  usich,  usig,  usih. 

2.  Thou,  thoue,  thow,  thowc,  thu,  &u,  ]iu ; — thy,  thi,  thin,  thine,  thyne, 
thyn,  bm,  }>m;— THEE,  the,  theh,  thee,  Be  \^; — ye,  yee,  ze,  zee,  ge,  ghe; — 
your  or  YOURS,  youre,  zour,  sour,  soure,  hure,  eopeji ; — you,  youe,  yow,  gou, 
zou,  ou,  lu,  mil,  eop,  iow,  geow,  eowih,  eowic,  iowih. 

3.  He,  hee,  hie,  hi,  he,  se ;— nis,  hise,  is,  hys,  hyse,  ys,  i-s,  hys,  hjr  ;— 
nni,  hine,  hen,  hyue,  hiene,  hion,  hym,  hym,  im,  him;— they,  thay,  thei, 
tlie,  tha,  thai,  thii,  yai,  hi,  hii,  hie,  heo,  big,  hyg,  hy,  big,  hi;— their  or 
THEIRS,  ther,  theyr,  theyrs,  thair,  thare,  hare,  here,  her,  hir,  hire,  hira, 
hyjia,  Beojia,  ]ieojia,  beora; — them,  theym,  thym,  thaym,  thaim,  thame,  tham, 
em,  hem,  heom,  hiora,  bom,  com,  him,  hi,  big. 

4.  .She,  shee,  sche,  scbo,  sho,  shoe,  rcse?  reo,  heo,  hio,  biu  ;— heb,  [pos- 
pcssivc,]  bur,  hir,  hire,  hyr,  hyre,'*hyrie,  hypa,  hejia ; — her,  [objective,]  hir, 
hire,  beji,  byre,  hi. 

5.  It,  itt,  hyt,  bytt,  yt,  yc,  hit,  ic,  hic.  According  to  Home  Tooke,  this  pro- 
noun is  from  tke  perfect  participle  of  hiBcan,  to  name,  and  signifies  the  said ; 
but  Dr.  Alexander  Murray  makes  it  the  neuter  of  a  decUnablo  adjective, 
"be,  heo,  hita,  this." — Ilist.  Eurap.  Lang.,  Vol.  i,  p.  315. 

II.  The  relatives  are  derived  from  the  same  source,  and  have  passed 
through  similar  changes,  or  varieties  in  orthography ;  as, 

1.  Who,  ho,  wba,  hwa,  wua,  hua,  qua,  quba,  bpa,  hue  ; — whose,  who's, 
wbos,  quhois,  quhais,  quhase,  hpser ; — whom,  whome,  quhum,  quhome, 
hwom,  lipam,  hwtem,  hwaene,  hwone. 

2.  Which,  whiche,  whycbe,  whilcb,  wyeb,  quilcb,  quilk,  quhilk,  hwilc, 
hpilc,  bwylc,  hwelc,  wliilk,  bujlic,  hvilc. 

3.  What,  hwat,  hwat,  bwet,  quhat.  This  pronoun,  whether  relative  or 
interrogative,  is  regarded  by  some  as  a  neuter  derivative  from  the  masculino 
or  feminine  wha,  who.  It  iuay  have  been  thence  derived,  but,  in  modern 
English,  it  is  not  always  of  the  neuter  gender. 

4.  That,  in  Anglo-Saxon,  is  thcet,  or  J^ffic.  Ilorne  Tooke  supposes  this 
•word  to  have  been  originally  the  perfect  participle  of  thean,  to  take.  This 
derivation  is  doubtful. 

From  its  various  uses,  the  word  that  is  called  sometimes  a  pronoun,  some- 
times an  adjective,  and  sometimes  a  conjunction;  but,  in  respect  to_ deriva- 
tion, it  is,  doubtless,  one  and  the  same. — As  an  adjective,  it  was  formerly 
applicable  to  a  f51ural  noun ;  as,  '■'■That  holy  ord7-es." — Dr.  Martin. 

SECTION  V. — DERIVATION   OF  VERBS. 

In  EnoUsh,  Verbs  are  derived  from  nouns,  from  ailjectives,  or  from  verbs. 
I.  Verbs  arc  derived  from  A'ou?is  in  the  following  ways  : — 


APPENDIX  II. — (etymology.) — DERIVATION.      831 

1.  By  adding  izej  ise,  en,  or  ate:  na,  author,  authorize ;  critic,  criticise; 
length,  lengthen;  origin,  originate.  The  termination  ize  is  of  Greek  origin; 
and  ise,  of  French :  the  former  should  be  generally  preferred  in  forming 
English  derivatives  ;  but  ise  usually  terminates  such  verbs  as  are  essentially 
formed  by  means  of  prefixes ;  as,  arise,  disguise,  advise,  circumcise,  despise, 
surmise,  comprise,  compromise,  enterprise. 

2.  By  changing  a  consonant,  or  by  adding  mute  e:  as,  advice,  advise;  bath, 
lathe  ;  breath,  breathe. 

II.  Verbs  are  derived  from  Adjectives  in  the  following  ways : — 

1  By  adding  en,  ate,  or  ize:  as,  deep,  deepen;  domestic,  domesticate  ;  civil, 
civilize. 

2.  Many  adjectives  become  verbs,  without  change  of  form :  as,  warm,  to 
warm;  dry,  to  dry ;  black,  to  black  •  forward,  to  forward. 

III.  Verbs  are  derived  from   Vcros  in  the  following  ways: — 

1.  By  prefixing  6^i«  or  un,\.o  reverse  the  meaning:  as,,  please,  displease  J 
qualify,  disqualify  ;  fasten,  'unfasten  j  muzzle,  immuzele. 

2.  By  prefixing  a,  be,  for,  fore,  mis,  over,  out,  under,  up,  or  with:  as,  ri^e, 
arise  sprinkle,  besprinkle;  bid,  forbid  :  see,  foresee ;  take,  mistake;  look, 
overlook;  run,  outrun;  go,  undergo  •  hold,  uphold;  draw,  withdraw. 

SECTION   VI. — DERIVATION  OF   PARTICIPLES. 

All  English  Participles  are  derived  from  English  verbs,  in  the  manner  ex- 
plained under  tlie  head  of  Etymology;  and  when  foreign  pariiciples  are  in- 
troduced into  our  language,  they  are  not  participles  with  us,  but  belong  to 
eome  other  part  of  speech, 

SECTION  VII. — DERIVATION  OF  ADVERBS, 

1.  In  English,  many  Adverbs  are  derived  from  adjectives  by  adding  ly, 
which  is  an  abbreviation  for  like:  as,  candid,  'andidly ;  sordid,  sordidly. 
Most  adverbs  of  manner  are  thus  formed. 

2.  Many  adverbs  are  compounds  formed  from  two  or  more  English  words; 
as,  herein,  thereby,  to-day,  aluxiys,  already,  elsewhere,  sometimes,  ivherewithaL 
The  formation  and  the  meaning  of  these  are  in  general  sutRciently  obvious. 

3.  About  seventy  adverbs  are  formed  hy  means  of  the  prefix  a ;  us,  Abreast, 
abroad,  across,  afresh,  away,  ago,  awry,  astray. 

4.  JVefids,  as  an  adverb,  (meaning  necessarily,)  is  a  contraction  of  need  is; 
prithee,  of  I  pray  thee;  alone,  of  all  one;  only,  of  one  like;  anon,  of  in  one 
[instant];   never,  of  ne  ever  ;  [not  ever]. 

5.  Very  is  from  the  French  vei-ay,  or  vrai,  true.  '■'■Still,''''  says  Tooke,  "is 
from  the  imperative  of  the  Saxon  r^e.\\-An,_to put ;'"'  and  '■'■  Else  is  from  the 
imporatlve  of  alej-an,  to  dismiss:''  Bather  is  the  comparative  of  the  ancient 
rath,  soon. 

SECTION  VIII.— DERIVATION  OF  CONJUNCTIONS. 

The  English  C'^njunctions  are  mostly  of  Saxon  origin.  The  best  diction- 
aries of  our  language  give  ns,  for  the  most  part,  the  same  words  in  Saxon 
characters ;  but  Home  Tooke,  in  his  Diversions  of  Purley,  a  learned  and 
curious  work  which  the  advanced  student  may'  peruse  with  advantajre, 
traces  these  and  many  other  English  particles  to  Saxon  verbs  or  participle.^. 
The  following  derivations,  so  far  as  they  partake  of  such  specumtious,  ara 
offered  pinciprlly   on  his  authority: — 

1.  Although,  signifying  admit,  alloiv,  is  from  all  and  thovgh ;  the  latter 
being  the  imperative  of  an  ancient  verb,  meaning  to  allow. 

2.  An,  an  obsolete  conjunction,  signifying  i/,  or  ^ra«<,  is  the  imperative  of 
the  Saxon  verb  anan,  to  grant. 

3.  And,  denoting  addition,  is  said  by  Tooke  to  come  from  an-ab,  the  im- 
perative of  anan-ab,  to  grant  to,  to  add. 

4.  As,  according  to' Dr.  Johnson,  is  from  the  Teutonic  als ;  but  J.  IT. 
Tooke  says  that  als  itself  is  a  contraction  for  all  and  the  original  particle  es  ot 
as,  meaning  it,  that,  or  which. 


332  INSTITUTES   OF  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

5.  Because,  meaning  by  cause,  is  from  be  (Saxou  for  iy)  and  cause. 

6.  Both,  the  two,  is  from  the  pronominal  adjective  both  ;  whicli,  according 
to  Dr.  Alex.  Murray,  is  a  contraction  of  the  Visigothic  bagoth,  doubled.  Tho 
Anglo-Saxons  wrote  for  it  butu,  butwu,  buta,  and  batwa'  i.  e.,  ba,  both,  twa^ 
two. 

7.  But,  implying  addition,  is  supposed  by  Tooke  to  have  come  from  "  boe, 
the  imperative  of  bocan,  to  boot,  to  add.'''' 

8.  But,  denoting  exception,  is  conjectured  by  the  same  author  to  have  coma 
from  "  be-ucan,  the  imperative  of  beon-ucan,  to  be  out.'''' 

9.  EriHER,  one  of  the  two,  is  from  the  Saxon  (zgether,  or  egther. 

\^.  Eke,  signifying  also  or  add,  (now  nearly  obsolete)  ia  from  eac,  the  im 
perative  of  eacan,  to  add. 

11.  Except,  which,  as  a  conjunction,  means  unless,  is  the  imperative,  or 
(according  to  Dr.  Johnson)  an  ancient  perfect  participle,  of  the  verb  to  except. 

12.  For,  meaning  because,  is  the  Saxou  pop,  or  tho  Dutch  voor,  from  a 
Gothic  noun  signifying  cause  or  sake. 

13.  Ii',  meaning  give,  grant,  allow,  is  from  sip,  {g>f,^  tbe  imperative  of  sipan, 
to  give. 

14.  Lest,  meaning  that  not,  dismissed,  is  from  lej-eb,  the  perfect  participle 
of  leran,  to  disniiss. 

15.  Neither,  not  either,  is  a  union  and  contraction  of  ne  either ;  our  old 
writers  frequently  used  ne  for  not. 

16.  Nor,  not  other,  not  else,  is  a  union  and  contraction  ofne  or. 

17.  NoTwiTHSTANDiNa,  not  hindering,  is  an  English  compound  which  needa 
no  further  explanation. 

18.  Oe  has  been  supposed  a  contraction  of  the  Saxon  oSep,  other.  Dr. 
Bosworlh  gives  o&5e  as  its  Saxon  equivalent. 

19.  Save,  [bvt,  except,]  anciently  used  as  a  conjunction,  is  the  imperative  of 
the  verb  to  save,  meaning  to  except. 

20.  Since  [seeing  or  seen]  is  from  rmej-,  or  Tyne,  the  perfect  participle  of 
j*eon,  to  see.    Seeing,  too,  is  sometimes  a  copulative  conjunction. 

21.  Than,  which  introduces  the  latter  term  of  a  comparison,  is  from  the 
Saxon  Ranne,  which  Avas  used  for  the  same  purpose. 

22.  That  [taken]  is  from  Stet,  the  perfect  participle  of  Sean,  to  tale. 

23.  Though  [allow]  is  from  Bapij,  the  imperative  of  Sapijan,  to  allow. 

24.  Unless  [except,  dismiss,]  is  from  onler,  the  imperative  of  onleran,  to 
dismiss, 

25.  WhetheBj  which  introduces  the  first  term  of  an  alternative,  is  tho 
Baxon  lipae5e)i,  which  was  used  for  the  same  purpose. 

26.  Yet,  [nevertheless,]  is  from  gee,  the  imperative  of  jecan,  to  get. 

SECTION   IX. — DERIVATION   OF   PREPOSITIONS. 

The  following  is  the  derivation  of  most  of  the  English  Prepositions  : — 

1.  About  [at  circuit]  is  from  tho  French  a,  or  the  English  prefix  a,  mean- 
ing at  or  to,  uniLbout,  meaning  turn,  or  limit. 

2.  Above  [at-by-high]  is  from  the  Saxon,  a,  be,  and  upa,  high. 

3.  Across  [at-cross]  is  from  a  and  the  noun  cross. 

4.  After  [Jarther  in  the  rear]  is  the  comparitive  of  aft,  now  used  only  by 
seamen. 

5.  Against  [opposed  fo]  is  from  on-jeonb,  gone  at. 

6.  Along  [at-long]  is  from  a  and  long. 

I.  Amid  [at  mid  or  middle]  is  from  a  and  mid. 

8.  Amidst  [at  midst]  is  from  a  and  m,idst,  contracted  from  middest,  the  su. 
perlative  of  mid. 

9.  Among  [a-mixed]  is  abbreviated  from  amongst. 

10.  Amongst  [a-mixed]  is  from  a  and  mongst,  a  Saxon  participle  signifying 
mixed. 

II.  Abound  [at  circle]  is  from  a  and  round,     circle  or  sphere. 

12.  At  [joinin/i]  is  supposed  by  some  to  come  from  the  Latin  ad;  but  Dr 
Murray  says.  "  Wo  have  in  Teutonic  at  for  aqt,  touching  or  touched,  joined, 
at.''—jrist.  Lang.,  i,  349, 


APPENDIX  II. — (etymology.)— DERIVATION.      33 


o 


13.  ArnwAET  [across]  is  from  a  and  iliwart,  cross. 

14.  Before  \bij-fore]  is  from  the  prefix  be  iiud  the  adjective ybr^. 

15.  Behind  [by-hind]  is  from  the  prefix  be  and  the  adjective  hind. 

16.  Below  [by-low]  is  from  the  prefix  be  and  the  adjective  Um. 

17.  Beneath  [below]  is  from  be  and  the  adjective  Math,  low ;  whence  tho 
comparative  neUier,  lower. 

18.  Beside  [by-side]  is  from  be  and  the  noun  side. 

19.  Besides*  [by-sides]  is  from  be  and  the  phiral  noun  sides. 

20.  Between  [by-tivain]  is  from  ie  and  twain,  two. 

21.  Betwixt  [Zie^ziieen.]  is  from  be  and  tw^j;,  a  Gothic  word  signifying  two, 
cr  twain. 

22.  Beyond  [fty-^orae]  is  from  le  and  geonb,  the  perfect  participle  of 
jeonban,  to  pass,  or  go. 

23.  Br  (formerly  written  hi  and  /;e)  is  the  imperative  of  beon,  to  be. 

24.  Concerning  is  from  the  first  participle  of  the  verb  to  concern. 

25.  Down  [low]  is  from  the  Anglo-Saxon  adjective  dun,  low. 

26.  During  [lasting]  is  from  an  old  verb  dure,  to  last,  formerly  in  use  ;  as, 
"While  the  world  may  dure.''"' — Chaucer'' s  Knight'' ^  Tale. 

27.  Except  is  from  the  imperative,  or  (according  to  Br.  Johnson)  the  an- 
cient perfect  participle,  of  the  verb  to  except. 

28.  Excepting  is  trom  the  first  participle  of  the  verb  to  except. 

29.  For  [by  cause  of]  is  from  a  Gothic  noun  signifying  cause  or  sake. 
SO.  From  is  derived  from  the  Saxon  pfium,  or  pjiam,  beginning. 

81.  In  is  from  the  Latin  in :  the  Greek  is  cv,  and  the  French  en. 

82.  Into  is  a  compound  oiin  and  to. 

S3.  NoTwrTHSTANDiNO  [not  hindering]  is  from  the  adverb  not,  and  the  par- 
ticiple withstanding. 

84.  Of  is  from  the  Saxon  oy,  -whicli  IT.  Tooke  supposes  to  be  from  a  noun 
signifying  offspring. 

35.  Off  (opposed  to  on)  Dr.  Johnson  derives  from  the  Dutch  af. 

S6.  On  is  traced  by  etymologists  to  the  Gothic  ana,  the  German  an,  the 
Dutch  aan :  but  such  a  derivation  does  not^a;  its  meaning. 

37.  OuTOF  (opposed  to  into)  is  from  the  adverb  out  and  the  preposition  q/ 
— usually  written  separately,  but  better  joined  in  some  instances. 

38.  Over  [above]  is  from  upepa,  Mgher. 

39.  OvERTHWART  is  a  compound  of  over  and  thirart,  cross. 

40.  Past  is  a  contraction  from  the  perfect  participle  ^a^seti, 

41.  Bound  [about]  is  from  the  noun  or  adjective  round. 

42.  Since  [seen],  says  Tooke,  is  from  the  perfect  participle  of  reon,  to  see. 

43.  Through  (contracted  from  thorough)  ia  from  a  Saxon  word  meaning 
door  orpassage. 

44.  Throughout  is  a  compound  of  through  and  out. 

45.  Till  [the  end]  is  from  the  Saxon  cil,  [Saxonfor<i^Z,]notingendoftirae. 

46.  To  is  a  simple  word  from  tho  Saxon  to,  whicli  is  supposed  to  coma 
from  a  Gothic  noun  signifying  end. 

47.  Touching  is  from  the  first  participle  of  the  verb  to  touch. 

48.  Towabd  or  towaeds  is  probably  a  compound  of  to  and  ward^  from 
pajibian,  to  look. 

49.  Under  [on  nether]  is  from  the  Dutcb  on  neder,  on  lower. 

50.  Underneath  is  a  compound  from  under  and  neath,  low. 

51.  Until  is  a  compound  from  on  or  un  and  till,  the  end. 
62.  Unto  (now  little  used)  is  from  on  or  un  and  to. 

53.  Up  is  from  the  Saxon  up,  which  II.  Tooke  traces  to  upa,  high. 

54.  Upon  [high  on]  is  from  up  and  on. 

55.  WriH  [join]  is  probably  from  the  imperative  of  pi&an,  to  join. 

56.  Wfthin  [by-in]  is  from  with  and  in. 

57.  WrmouT  [hy-out]  is  from  with  and  out. 

58.  Worth  [o/the  value  of]  is  from  the  Saxon  verb  wyrthan  or  weorthan, 
to  be;  and  has,  by  pedigree,  as  good  a  claim  to  be  a  preposition  as  by  and 

*  Beside  should  be  used  as  a  preposition,  and  besides  only  as  an  adverb.  See  re«^ 
eoaa  for  this  distinction,  in  CampheWs  Philosophy  of  Rhetoric, 


334  INSTITUTES  OF  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

with :  the  old  Englieh  vn-iters  used  worth  for  be,  in  every  part  of  the  conju" 
gation.  According  to  J.  H.  Tooke,  with,  in  the  two  compounds  within  and 
without,  is  from  pyTi&,  the  imperative  of  pyjaOan,  to  be  ;  and  the  meaning  of 
the  former  is  be  in,  and  of  tlie  latter  be  out.  Compare  the  derivations  of  bt, 
■WFTH,  and  WORTH ;  and  see  observations  6th  and  7th,  on  Kule  22d,  pago 
^09. 

SECTION  X. — DERIVATION   OF   INTERJECTIONS. 

Tnose  significant  and  constructive  words  which  are  occasionally  used  as 
Interiections,  do  not  require  an  explanation  here ;  and  those  mere  sounds 
which  are  in  no  wise  expressive  of  thought,  scarcely  admit  of  definition  or 
derivation.  The  interjection  Hey  is  probubly  a  corruption  of  the  adjective 
high; — Alas  is  from  the  French  helas ; — Alack  is  probably  a  corruption  of 
alas; — Welaway  (which  is  now  corrupted  into  weltaday,)  is  from  the  Saxon 
palapa,  wo  on  wo; — Fie,  from  plan,  to  hate; — Heyday,  fi-om  high  day; — • 
Avaunt,  from  the  French  amnt,  before  ; — Lo,  from  look; — Begone,  from  id 
and  gone; — Welcome,  from  well  and  come. 

SECTION  XI. — EXPLANATION  OF  THE  PREFIXES. 

In  the  formation  of  words,  certain  particles  are  often  employed  as  prefixes ; 
which,  as  they  generally  have  some  peculiar  import,  may  be  separately  ex- 
plained. A  few  of  them  are  of  Anglo-Saxon  origin ;  and  the  greater  part 
of  these  are  still  employed  as  separate  words  in  our  language.  The  rest  are 
Latin,  Greek,  or  French  prepositions.  The  roots  to  which  they  are  prefixed, 
are  not  always  proper  English  words.  Those  which  are  such,  are  called 
Separable  Radicals;  and  those  which  are  not  such,  Inseparable  liadicaU. 

CLASS    I. ENGLISH    OR    ANGLO-SAXON    PREFIXES. 

1.  A,  as  an  English  prefix,  signifies  on,  in,  at,  or  to :  as  in  a-hoard,  a-shore, 
a-sUep,  a-far,  a-jield.  The  French  a,  to,  is  probably  the  same  particle ;  as 
in  a-dieu.    This  prefix  is  sometimes  redundant ;  as  in  a-wake,  a-rise. 

2.  Be  signifies  t/pon,  to,  by,  or  /or  ;  as  in  bespatter,  he-times,  be-tide,  be- 
speak.    It  19  sometimes  redundant ;  as  in  he-gird,  be-deck,  be-loved. 

3.  Counter  means  against  or  opposite;  as  in  counter-poise,  counter-evidence, 
eounter-nat  u  ral. 

4.  Fob,  in  composition,  seems  to  signify ./rowi  .•  it  is  found  in  the  irregular 
verbs  for-bear,  for-bid,  for-get,  for-give,  forsake,  for-sicear;  and  vafor-do, 
for-pass,for-pine,  for-say,  for-think,  f&r-waste,  which  last  are  now  seldom 
used. 

5.  Fore,  prefixed  to  verbs,  signifies  before;  as  m  fore-know,  fore-tell :  pre- 
fixed to  nouns,  it  is  an  adjective,  and  signifies  anterior  ;  as  in  fore-side,  j  ore- 
part. 

6.  Half,  signifying  one  of  two  equal  parts,  is  much  used  in  comoosition  ; 
and,  often,  merely  to  denote  imperfection:  as,  half-sighted,  seeing  imper- 
fectly. 

7. 'Mis  signifies  wrong;  as  in  mi-s-do,  mis-pla^e. 

8.  Got,  prefixed  to  verbs,  generally  denotes  excess  ;  as  in  out-do,  out-leap: 
prefixed  to  nouns,  it  is  an  adjective,  and  signifies  exterior;  as  in  outside^ 
out-parish. 

9.  Over  usually  denotes  superiority  or  excess ;  as  in  over-power,  overstrain^ 
over-large,  over-dose,  over-growth. 

10.  Self  signifies  one''s  own  person,  or  belonging  to  one''s  own  person.  It  is 
much  used  in  composition ;  as  in  self-love,  self-abuse,  self-affairs,  self-nnlled, 
self -accusing .     Sornetimes  w//"  means  very  ;  as  in  self-same. 

11.  Un  denotes  negation  or  contrariety  ;  as  in  un-kind,  vn-load. 

12.  Under  denotes  inferiority;  as  in  under-viilue,  under-clerk, 

13.  Up  denotes  motion  upwards ;  as  in  up-lift :  sometimes  subversion ;  as 
in  up-set. 

14.  WrrH,  as  a  prefix,  (^unUke  the  common  preposition  With,)  Bignifies 
against,  from,  or  hack;  as  m  loithstand,  with-hotd,  with-draw. 


APPENDIX  II. — (etymology.)— DERIVATION.      S35 

CLASS    n. — LATIN    PREFIXES. 

The  primitives  to  which  these  are  protixed,  arc  n)t  many  of  them  employ- 
ed separately  iu  English.  The  final  letter  of  the  prefix  ad,  con,  ex,  in,  ob,  or 
8ub,  is  often  changed  before  certain  consonants. 

1.  A,  AB,  or  ABs,  means  from,  or  away :  as,  a-vert,  to  turn  from;  ab-duce, 
to  lead  from  ;  abs-tract,  to  draw  away. 

2.  Ad,  ac,  af,  al,  an,  ap,  as,  at, — to  or  at :  as,  ad-vert,  to  turn  to ;  ac-cede, 
to  yield  to;  aj-Jlux,  a  flowing-to;  ally,  to  bind  to;  an-nex,  to  link  to;  ap- 
fly,  to  put  to  ;  assume,  to  take  to ;  at-iest,  to  witness  to. 

3.  Ante,— before  :  as  ante-cedent,  going  before  ;  ante-mundane,  before  the 
world  ;  ante-date,  to  date  before. 

4.  CmcuM, — around  or  about :  as,  circum-volve,  to  roll  around. 

6.  Con,  com,  co,  col,  cor, — together :  as,  cantract,  to  draw  together ;  con*' 
pel,  to  drive  together;  co-erce,  to  force  together;  col-lect,  to  gather  together; 
cor-rade,  to  scrape  together ;  can-junction,  a  joining-together. 

6.  CoNTBA, — against :  as  contra-dlct,  to  speak  against. 

7.  De,— of,  from,  or  down  :  as,  de-note,  to  be  a  sign  of;  de-tract,  to  dra\« 
from ;  de-fend,  to  hang  down ;  de-press,  to  press  down. 

8.  Dis,  Di, — away  or  apart :  as,  dis-pel,  to  drive  away ;  dissect,  to  cut 
apart ;  di-vert,  to  turn  away.  Bis,  before  English  words,  generally  reverses 
their  meaning ;  as,  please,  dis-please. 

9.  EorEx,  ec,  ef, — out:  as,  e-ject,  to  cast  out;  ex-tract,  to  draw  out;  eo- 
stacy,  a  raising-out ;  ef-face,  to  blot  out. 

10.  ExTEA,— beyond :  as,  extra-vagant,  wandering  beyond. 

11.  In,  il,  im,  w-,— in,  into,  against,  or  upju:  as,  inspire,  to  breathe  in; 
il-lude,  to  draw  in  by  deceit ;  im-mure,  to  wall  in ;  ir-ruption,  a  breaking-in ; 
in-cur,  to  run  into;  in-dict,  to  declare  against;  im-pi/te,  to  charge  upon. 
These  syllables,  prefixed  to  nouns  or  adjectives,  generally  reverse  theif 
meaning;  as,  ir-relu/ion,  ir-rational,  in-secure,  in-sane. 

12.  Inteb, — between:  as,  intersperse,  to  scatter  between;  inter-Jection, 
something  thrown  in  between. 

18.  Intro, — within :  as,  intro-vert,  to  turn  within. 

14.  Ob,  oc,  of,  op, — against:  as,  ob-trude,  to  thrust  against ;  oc-cur,  to  run 
against ;  qf-fer,  to  brmg  against ;  op-pose,  to  place  against ;  ob-ject,  cubt 
against. 

15.  Feb, — through  or  by:  as,  per-vade,  to  go  through;  per-cTiance,  by 
chance ;  per-cent,  by  the  hundred. 

16.  Post, — after :  as,  post-pone,  to  place  after. 

17.  Pr^,  or  pire, — before :  as,  presume,  to  take  before ;  pre-position,  a 
plaeing-before,  or  something  placed  before. 

18._  Pro, — for,  forth,  or  forwards  :  as,  pro-vide,  to  take  care  for ;  pro-duce, 
to  bring  forth ;  pro-trude,  to  thrust  forwards. 

19.  Pretek, — past  or  beyond :  as,  preter-it,  gone  by ;  preter-natvral,  be- 
yond what  is  natural. 

20.  Ee, — again  or  back:  as,  re-vietv,  to  view  again"  re-pel,  to  drive  back. 

21.  Ketro, — backwards :  as,  retro-cession,  a  going-backwards. 

22.  Se, — aside  or  apart:  as,  se-duce,  to  lead  aside ;  se-cede,  to  go  apart. 

23.  Semi,— half:  as,  semi-colon,  half  a  colon;  semi-circle,  half  a  circle; 
eemi-vowel,  half  a  vowel. 

24.  Sub,  sup,  sur, — under:  as,  sub-scribe,  to  write  under;  snp-ply,  to  put 
under  ;  siir-i-eption,  a  creeping-under ;  sub-ject,  cast  under. 

25.  Subter, — beneath :  as,  subter-fluous,  nowing  beneath. 

26.  Super, — over  or  above :  as,  super-Jiuous,  flowing  over ;  super-natanf, 
ewimming  above ;  super-lative,  carried  over. 

27.  Trans, — beyond,  over,  to  an  other  state  or  place :  as,  trans-gress,  to 
pass  beyond  or  over ;  trans-mit,  to  send  to  an  other  place ;  trans-form,  to 
change  to  an  other  shape. 

CLASS    III. GREEK    PREFIXES. 

1.  A  and  an,  in  Greek  derivatives,  denote  privation :  as,  a-nomalous,  want- 
ing rule;  ati-onymoua,  wanting  name;  an-arehy,  want  ef  government. 


83G  INSTITUTES  OF  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

2.  Amphi, — both  or  two:  as,  amphi-bious,  living  in  two  elements. 

3.  Anti, — against :  as,  anti-acid,  agaiuat  acidity  ;  anti-Jehile,  against  fererj 
anti-thesis,  a  plaeing-agaiust. 

4.  Apo,  aph, — from :  as,  apostrophe,  a  turning-from ;  apTi-aresis,  a  taking- 
from. 

5.  DiA, — through:    as,  dia-gonal,  through   the  corners;    dia-meter,   t 
measure  through. 

6.  Epi,  eph, — upon :  as,  epi-demic,  upon  the  people ;  eph-emera,  upon  a 
day. 

7.  Hemi, — half:  as,  hemisphere,  half  a  sphere. 

8.  Hyper, — over  :  as,  hyper-critical,  over-critical. 

9.  Hypo, — under:  as,  hypostasis,  substance,  or  that  which  stands  under; 
Ttypo-thesis,  supposition,  or  a  piacing-under. 

10.  Meta,— beyond,  over,  to  an  other  state  or  place :  as,  meta-morphose, 
to  change  to  an  other  shape. 

11.  Para, — against:  as,  para-dox,  something  contrary  to  common  opinion. 

12.  Peri, — around:  &s, peri-phery,  the  circumference,  or  measure  round. 

13.  Syn,  sym,  syl, — together:  as,  syn-tax,  a  placing-together ;  sym-pathy, 
a  sutfering-together ;  syl-lable,  what  is  taken  together. 

CLASS   IV. FRENCH    PREFIXES. 

1.  A  is  a  preposition  of  very  frequent  use  in  French,  and  generally  meana 
to.  We  have  suggested  that  it  is  probably  the  same  as  the  Anglo-Saxon 
prefix  a.  It  is  found  in  a  few  English  compounds  that  are  of  French,  and 
not  of  Saxon  origin :  a-dieu,  to  God  ;  a-bout,  to  the  end  or  turn. 

2.  De,  —of  or  from:  as  in  de-mure,  of  manners ;  dc-liver,  to  ease  from  or 
of. 

S.  Demi, — half:  as,  deml-man,  half  a  man;  demi-god,  half  a  god. 

4.  En,  em, — in,  into,  or  upon :  as,  en-chain,  to  hold  in  chains ;  em-brace,  to 
clasp  in  the  arms;  en^toinb,  to  put  into  a  tomb  ;  em-boss,  to  stud  upon.  Many 
words  are  yet  wavering  between  the  French  and  the  Latin  orthography  of 
this  prefix:  as,  embody,  or  imbody ;  ensurance,  or  insurance;  ensnare,  or  in- 
enare ;  enquire,  or  inquire. 

5.  SuR, — upon,  over,  or  after :  as,  sur-name,  a  name  upon  a  name ;  «<r- 
*«y,  to  look  over ;  aur-vive,  to  live  after,  to  overlive,  to  outlive. 


APPENDIX  III. 

(SYNTAX.) 

OF  THE  QUALITIES  OF  STYLE. 

Style  13  the  particular  manner  in  which  a  person  expresses  his  conceptions 
hy  means  of  language.  It  is  different  from  mere  words,  and  is  not  to  bo 
regulated  altogether  by  rules  of  construction.  It  always  has  some  relation 
to  the  author's  peculiar  manner  of  thinking;  and,  being  that  sort  of  expres- 
sion which  his  thoughts  most  readily  assume,  sometimes  partakes,  not  only 
of  what  is  characteristic  of  the  man,  but  even  of  national  peculiarity.  Tha 
words  which  an  autlior  employs,  may  be  proper,  and  so  constructed  as  to 
violate  no  rule  of  syntax ;   and  yet  his  style  may  have  great  faults. 

To  designate  the  general  characters  of  style,  such  epithets  as  concise,  dif- 
fuse,—neat,  negligent, — nervous,  feeble, — simpl  ,  affected, — easy,  stiff, — 
perspicuous,  obscure, — elegant,  florid, — are  mployed.  A  considerable  di- 
versity of  style,  may  be  found  in  compositions  all  equally  excellent  in  their 
kind.  And,  indeed,  different  subjects,  as  well  as  the  different  endowments 
by  which  genius  is  distinguished,  require  this  di.ersity.  But  in  forming  his 
Btyle,  the  learner  should  femember,  that  a  negligent,  feeble,  affected,  stiff,  or 
obscure  style,  is  always  faulty;  and  that  perspicuity,  ease,  simpUcity, 
etreugth,  and  neatness,  are  qualities  always  to  be  aimed  at. 

In  order  to  acquire  a  good  style,  the  f'-equent  practice  of  composing  and 
writing  something,  is  indispon^^'ubly  necessary.  "Without  exercise  and  dili- 
gent attention,  rules  or  precepts  for  the  attainment  of  this  object,  will  be  of 
no  avail.  When  the  learner  has  acquired  such  a  knowledge  of  grammar,  as 
to  be  in  some  degree  qualified  for  the  undertaking,  he  should  devote  a  stated 

Eortion  of  his  time  to  composition.  This  exercise  will  bring  the  powers  of 
is  mind  into  requisition,  in  a  way  that  is  well  calculated  to  strengthen  them. 
And  if  he  has  opportunity  for  reading,  he  may,  by  a  diligent  perusal  of  the 
test  authors,  acquire  both  language  and  taste,  as  well  as  sentiment ;  and 
these  three  are  the  essential  qualifications  of  a  good  writer. 

In  regard  to  the  qualities  which  constitute  a  good  style,  we  can  here  offer 
no  more  than  a  few  brief  hints.  With  respect  to  words  and  phrases,  partic- 
ular attention  should  be  paid  to  puriti/,  propriety,  and  precision ;  anct,  with 
respect  to  sentences,  to  perspicuiti/,  uniti/,  and  strength.  Under  each  ci"  these 
heads,  we  shall  arrange  in  the  form  of  short  precepts  a  few  of  the  most  im- 
portant directions  for  the  forming  of  a  good  style. 

SECTION   I. — OF  PUEITY. 

Purity  of  style  consists  in  the  use  of  such  words  and  phrases  only,  as  be- 
long to  the  language  which  we  write  or  speak., 

Pbeokpt  1.  Avoid  the  unnecessary  use  of  foreign  words  or  idioms :  a3< 
fraicheur,  hauteur,  delicatesse,  politesse,  noblesse;  he  repented  himself;  ilservcj 
to  an  excellent  purpose. 

Precept  2.  Avoid,  on  ordinary  occasions,  obsolete  or  antiquated  words; 
m^hilom,  erewhile,  whoso,  albeit,  moreover,  aforetime,  methinks. 

Phecept  3.  Avoid  strange  or  unauthorized  words :  as,,  fiutteration,  inspec- 
tator,Jud'jematlcal,  incumberment,  connexUy,  electerized,  martyrized. 

Precept  4.  Avoid  bombast,  or  affectation  of  fine  writing.  It  is  ridiculous, 
however  serious  the  subject:  as,  "  Personifications,  however  rich  the  depic- 
tions, and  unconstrained  their  latitude;   analogies,  however  imposing  the 

1"' 


S38  INSTITUTES   OF   ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

objects  of  parallel,  and  the  media  of  comparison ;  can  never  expose  the  con- 
Bequences  of  siu  to  the  extent  of  fact,  or  the  range  of  demonstration." — 
Anonymous. 

SECTION  II, — o:t  propriety. 

Propriety  of  language  consists  in  the  selection  and  right  construction,  of 
Bnch  words  as  the  best  usiige  has  appropriated  to  those  ideas  which  wo  in- 
tend to  express  by  them. 

Precept  1.  Avoid  low  and  provincial  expressions:  such  as,  "&ys /;" — 
y^Thinks  I  to  myself ;'''' — '•'■To  get  into  a  scrape;''^—"  Stay  here  while  1  return." 

Precept  2.  In  writing  prose,  avoid  words  and  phrases  that  are  merely 
poetical:  such  as,  rnorn,  eve, plaint,  lone,  amid,  oft,  steepy ; — '■^what  time  tha 
winds  arise." 

Precept  3.  Avoid  technical  terms :  except  where  they  are  necessary,  in 
treating  of  a  particular  art  or  science.     In  technology,  they  are  pioper. 

Precept  4.  Avoid  the  recurrence  of  words  in  different  senses,  or  such  a 
repetition  of  words  as  denotes  paucity  of  language :  as,  "  His  own  reason 
might  have  suggested  better  reasons." — "  GregorY  favoured  the  und  rtakiug, 
for  no  other  reason  than  this;  that  the  manager,  in  countenance, /aj-oawJ 
Lis  friend." — "  I  ivant  to  go  and  see  what  he  ivants,''^ 

Precept  5.  Supply  words  that  are  wanting :  thus,  in  stead  of  saying,  "  This 
action  increased  his  former  services,"  say,  "This  action  increased  the  merit 
c^his  former  services." 

Precept  6.  Avoid  equivocal  or  ambiguous  expressions :  as,  "  His  memoni 
Bhall  be  lost  on  the  earth." — "  I  long  since  learned  to  like  nothing  but  what 
you  <fo."  ^ 

Precept  7.  Avoid  unintelligible  and  inconsistent  expressions :  as,  "  I  have 
observed  that  the  superiority  among  these  cotfee-liouse  politicians,  proceeds 
from  an  opinion  of  gallantry  and  fashion." — "These  words  do  not  convey 
even  an  opaque  idea  of  the  author's  meaning." 

Precept  8.  Observe  the  natural  order  of  things  or  events,  and  do  not  put 
the  cart  before  the  horse :  as,  "  The  scribes  taught  and  studied  the  law  of 
Moses." — "They  can  neither  return  to  nor  leave  their  houses." — "He  tum- 
bled, head  over  heels,  into  the  water." 

SECTION  III. — OF  PRECISION. 

Precision  consists  in  avoiding  all  superfluous  words,  and  adapting  the  ex- 
pression exactly  to  the  thought,  so  as  to  exhibit  neither  more  nor  less  than 
18  intended  by  the  author. 

Precept  1.  Avoid  a  useless  tautology,  either  of  expression  or  sentiment: 
as  in,  "Return  again; — return  back  again; — converse  together; — rise  up;— 
fall  down  ; — enter  in  ; — a  mutual  likeness  to  each  other ; — the  latter  end  ; — 
liquid  streams; — grateful  thanks; — the  last  of  all; — throughout  the  whole 
book."  "  Whenever  1  go,  he  always  meets  me  there." — "  Where  is  he  at  3 
J«  there." — " Nothing  efee  but  that." — "It  is  odious  and  hatefuV — "His 
faithfulness  and  fidelity  should  be  rewarded." 

Precept  2,  Observe  the  exact  meaning  of  words  acconnted  synonymous, 
and  employ  those  which  are  the  most  suitable :  as,  "  A  diligent  ncholar  may 
<k;jm«>«  Knowledge,  gain  celebrity,  obtain  rewards,  win  prizes,  and  get  high 
honour,  though  he  earn  no  money."  These  six  verbs  have  nearly  the  sama 
meaning,  and  yet  they  cannot  well  be  changed. 

SECTION   IV. — OF   PERSPICUITY. 

Perspicuity  consists  in  freedom  from  obscurity  or  ambiguity.  It  is  a  qual- 
ity so  essential,  in  every  kind  of  writing,  that  for  the  want  of  it,  no  merit 
can  atone.  "Witliout  this,  the  richest  ornaments  of  style,  only  ghmmer 
through  the  dark,  and  puzzle  instead  of  pleasing  the  reader." — Blair.  Per- 
epicuity,  being  the  most  important  property  of  language,  and  an  exemption 
from  the  most  embnrrassing  defects,  seems  even  to  rise  to  a  degree  of  posi- 
tive beauty,    AVc  are  naturally  pleased  with  a  style  that  frees  ua  from  ail 


APPENDIX  III. — (syntax.)— STYLE.  839 

suspense  in  regard  to  the  meaning;  that  " carries  us  through  the  subject 
■without  embarrassment  or  confusion ;  and  that  always  flows  like  a  limpid 
stream,  through  which  we  can  see  to  the  very  bottom." 

Precept  1.  Place  adjectives,  relative  pronouns,  participles,  adverbs,  and 
explanatory  phrases,  as  near  as  possible  to  the  words  to  which  they  relate, 
and  in  such  a  situation  as  the  sense  requires.  The  following  sentences  are 
deficient  in  perspicuity: — "Eeverence  is  the  veneration  paid  to  superior 
eanctity,  intermixed  with  a  certain  degree  of  awe."  "The  Eomans  under- 
stood liberty,  at  least,  as  well  as  we."  "  Taste  was  never  made  to  cater  for 
vanity." 

Precept  2.  In  prose,  avoid  a  poetic  collocation  of  words. 

Precept  3.  Avoid  faulty  ellipsis,  and  repeat  all  words  necessary  to  pre- 
serve the  sense.  The  following  sentences  require  the  words  inserted  in 
crotchets  :  "  Kestlessness  of  mind  disqualifies  us,  both  for  the  enjoyment  of 
peace,  and  [for}  the  performance  of  our  duty." — Muiray's  Key.  "The 
Christian  religion  gives  a  more  lovely  character  of  God,  than  any  \pther'\  re- 
ligion ever  did." — Ibid. 

SECTION"  V. — OF  UNITY. 

_  Unity  consists  in  avoiding  useless  breaks  or  pauses,  and  keeping  one  ob- 
ject predominant  throughout  a  sentence  or  paragraph.  Every  sentence, 
whether  its  parts  be  few  or  many,  requires  strict  unity. 

Precept  1.  Avoid  brokenness  and  hitching.  The  following  example  lacks 
the  very  quality  of  which  it  speaks :  "  But  most  of  all,  in  a  single  sentence, 
is  required  the  strictest  unit?/.  It  may  consist  of  parts,  indeed,  but  these  part^ 
must  be  so  closely  bound  together,  as  to  make  the  impression  upon  tha 
mind,  of  one  object,  not  o/ many." — Murray's  Grammar. 

Precept  2.  Treat  different  topics  in  separate  paragraphs,  and  distinct  sen- 
timents m  separate  sentences.  Error:  "The  two  volumes  are,  indeed,  in- 
timately connected,  and  constitute  one  uniform  system  of  English  grammar." 
— Murray'' s  Preface. 

Precept  3.  In  the  progress  of  a  sentence,  do  not  desert  the  principal  sub- 
ject in  favour  of  adjuncts.  Error:  "  To  substantives  belong  gender,  num- 
ber, and  case  ;  and  they  are  all  of  the  third  person  when  spolcen  of,  and  of 
the  second  when  spoken  to.''''— Murray'' s  Grammar. 

Precept  4.  Do  not  introduce  parentheses,  except  when  a  lively  remark 
maj;  be  thrown  in  without  diverting  the  mind  too  long  from  the  principal 
Bubject. 

SECTION  VI. — OF  STRENGTH. 

Strength  consists  in  giving  to  the  several  words  and  members  of  a  sentence, 
such  an  arrangement  as  shall  bring  out  the  sense  to  the  best  advantage,  and 
present  every  idea  in  its  due  importance.  A  concise  style  is  the  most  favour- 
able to  strength. 

Precept'I.  Place  the  most  important  words  in  the  situation  in  which  they 
will  make  the  strongest  impression. 

Precept  2.  A  weaker  assertion  should  not  follow  a  stronger ;  and  when 
the  sentence  consists  of  two  members,  the  longer  should  be  the  concluding 
one. 

Precept  3.  When  things  are  to  be  compared  or  contrasted,  their  resem- 
blance or  opposition  will  be  rendered  more  striking,  if  some  resemblance  in 
the  language  and  construction,  be  preserved. 

Precept  4.  It  is,  in  general,  ungraceful  to  end  a  sentence  with  an  adverb, 
a  preposition,  or  any  inconsiderable  wor4  Qt  phrase,  wiiich  may  either  ba 
omitted  or  be  introduced  earlier. 


APPENDIX    IV. 

(PROSODY.) 

OF  POETIC  DICTION. 

Poetry,  as  defined  by  Dr.  Blair,  "  is  the  lang:uaffe  of  passion,  or  of  enlivened 
imagination,  formed,  most  commonly,  into  regular  numbers."  The  style  of 
poetry  differs,  in  many  respects,  from  that  which  is  commonly  adopted  in 
prose.  Poetic  diction  abounds  in  bold  figures  of  speech,  and  unusual  collo- 
cations of  words.  A  great  part  of  the  figures  which  have  been  treated  of 
under  the  head  of  prosody,  are  purely  poetical.  The  primary  aim  of  a  poet, 
is  to  please  and  to  move ;  and,  therefore,  it  is  to  the  imagination,  and  the 
passions,  that  he  speaks.  He  may,  and  he  ought  to  have  it  in  his  view,  to 
instruct  and  reform ;  but  it  is  indirectly,  and  by  pleasing  and  moving,  that 
he  accomplishes  this  end.  The  exterior  and  most  obvious  distinction  of 
poetry,  is  versification :  yet  there  are  some  forms  of  verse  so  loose  and  fam- 
iliar, as  to  be  hardly  distinguishable  from  prose ;  and  there  is  also  a  speoiea 
of  prose,  80  measured  in  ita  cadences,  and  so  much  raised  in  its  tone,  aa  to 
approach  very  nearly  to  poetical  numbers. 

POETICAL   PECULIAKITIES. 

The  following  are  some  of  the  most  Btriking  peculiarities  in  which  the 
poets  indulge,  and  are  indulged  : — 

I.  They  very  often  omit  the  ARTICLES',  as, 

♦'  What  dreadful  pleasure  1  there  to  stand  sublime, 
Like  sMipwrecK  a,  mariner  on  desert  coast .'" — Beattie. 

II.  They  abbreviate  many  NOUNS:  as,  amaze,  for  amazement;  acclaim, 
for  acclamation ;  consult,  for  consultation ;  corse,  for  corpse ;  eve,  or  even,  for 
evening ;  fount,  for  fountain ;  helm,  for  helmet ;  lament,  for  lamentation ; 
morn,  for  morning;  plaint,  for  complaint;  targe,  for  target;  weal,  for  wealth. 

HI.  They  employ  several  nouns  that  are  not  used  in  prose,  or  are  used 
but  rarely;  as,  benison,  boon,  emprise,  fane,  guerdon,  guise,  ire,  ken,  lore, 
meed,  sire,  steed,  stithy,  welkin,  yore. 

IV.  They  introduce  the  noun  self  after  an  other  notm  of  the  poaeeesive 
case;  as, 

1.  "  Afiliction's  semblance  bends  not  o'er  thy  tomb, 

Afiliction's  sdf  deplores  thy  youthful  doom." — ^W^n. 

2.  "  Thoughtless  of  beauty,  she  was  beauty's  ^eZ/"." — Thomson. 

V.  They  place  before  the  verb,  nouns,  or  other  words,  that  usually  come 
sfter  it ;  and,  after  it,  those  that  usually  come  before  it :  as, 

1.  "No  jealousy  their  dawn  of  love  o'ercast, 

Nor  blasted  were  their  wedded  days  with  strife." — Beattie, 

2.  "  No  hive  hast  thou  of  hoarded  sweets." 

S.  "Thy  chain  a  wretched  weight  shall  prove." — Langhome. 

4.  "Follows  the  loosen'd  aggravated  roar.'''' — Thomson. 

5.  "  Ihsk  purple  grows  ihe  primrose  pale.'''' — Langhome. 

VI.  They  often  place  ADJECTI'VES  after  their  nouns ;  as, 
1.  "  Or  where  the  gorgeous  East,  with  richest  hand, 

Showers  on  her  kings  barbaric,  pearl  and  gold." — Milion, 
S.  "  Come,  nymph  demure  witb  mantle  ihte,''^ 


S^. 


APPENDIX   IV. — (PROSODY.) — POETIC   DICTION.      841 

VII.  They  ascribe  qualities  to  things  to  which  they  do  not  literally  be- 
long; as, 

1.  "  Or  drowsy  tinllinga  lull  the  distant  folds." — Gray. 

2.  "  Imbitter'd  more  and  more  irovcx  peevish  day  to  day." — Thomson. 

3.  "All  thin  and  naked,  to  the  wMWiO  cold  nighi.'''' — Shakspeare. 

VIII.  They  use  concrete  terma  to  express  abstract  qualities ;  (i.  e.,  adjec- 
tives for  nouns ;)  as, 

1,  "Earth's  meanest  son,  all  trembling,  prostrate  falls, 

And  on  the  boundless  of  thy  goodness  calls." — Young. 

2.  "Meanwhile,  whate'er  of  beautiful  or  new, 

Sublime  or  dreadful,  in  earth,  sea,  or  sky. 
By  chance  or  search  was  ofl'ered  to  his  view, 
He  scann'd  with  curious  and  romantic  eye." — Beattie. 
8.  "Won  from  the  void  and  formless  infnite.^^ — Milton. 

IX.  They  substitute  quality  for  manner;  (i.  e.,  adjectives  for  adverbe;) 
as, 

1.  "- The  stately-sailing  swan, 

Gives  out  his  snowy  plumage  to  the  gale ; 

And,  arching  proud  his  necK,  with  oary  feet 

Bears  forward ^^rce,  and  guards  his  osier  isle." — Thomson. 

2.  "  Thither  continual  pilgrims  crowded  still." — Id. 

X.  Tliey  form  new  compound  epithets;  as, 

1.  ^^Imvorld-rejoiciTW  &ioX&,  it  moves  sublime." — Thomson. 

2.  "The  detvy-skirted  Qloxxd^  imbibe  the  sun." — Id. 

8.  "  By  brooks  and  groves  in  liolkno^whisperin-g  gales." — Id. 
A.  "The  violet  o? sky-woven  vest." — Langhorne. 
5.  "  A  league  from  Epidamnum  had  we  sailed, 

Before  the  always-wind-obeying  deep 

Gave  aiy  tragic  instance -ot  our  harm." — Shakspeare. 

XI.  They  connect  the  comparative  degree  to  the  positive ;  as, 

1.  ^^JVear  and  more  near  the  billows  rise." — Merrick. 

2.  "  Wide  and  wider  spreads  the  vale." — Dyer. 

3.  "  Wide  and  more  wide,  the  o'erflowings  of  the  mind 

Take  every  creature  in,  of  every  kind." — Pope. 

XII.  They  form  many  adjectives  in  y,  which  are  not  common  in  prose; 
as,  A  gleamy  ray, — towery  height, — steepy  hill, — steely  casque, — heapy  harvests, 
— vioony  sliield, — writhy  snake, — stilly  lake, — vasty  deep,— paly  circlet. 

XIII.  They  employ  adjectives  of  an  abbreviated  form :  as,  dread,  for 
dreadful;  drear,  for  dreary ;  ebon,  for  ebony ;  hoar,  for  hoary ;  lone,  for 
lonely ;  scant,  for  scanty  ;  skme,  for  sloping ;  submiss,  for  submissive  ;  vei-rml, 
for  Vermillion ;  yon,  for  yonder. 

XIV.  They  employ  several  adjectives  that  are  not  used  in  prose,  or  are 
used  but  seldom ;  as,  azure,  blithe,  boon,  dank,  darkling,  darksome,  dovghty, 
dun,  fell,  rife,  rapt,  rueful,  sear,  sylvan,  twain,  wan. 

XV.  They  employ  personal  PRONOUNS,  and  introduce  their  noims 
afterwards;  as, 

1.  "  /i!  curl'd  not  Tweed  alone,  that  breeze.'''—  W.  Scott. 

2.  "Is  it  the  lightning's  quivering  glance, 

That  on  the  thicket  streams ; 
Or  do  they  flash  on  spear  and  lance, 
The  sun's  retiring  beams .?" — Id. 

XVI.  They  sometimes  omit  the  relative,  of  the  nominativo  case ;  as, 
"  For  is  there  aught  in  sleep  can  charm  the  wise  ?" — Thomson. 

XVII.  They  omit  the  antecedent,  or  introduce  it  after  the  relative }  as, 
i.  "  Who  never  fasts,  no  banquet  e'er  enjoys, 

Who  never  toils  or  watches,  never  sleeps." — Armstrong. 

29* 


342  INSTITUTES  OF  ENGLISH  GEAMMAR. 

2.  "  Who  dares  think  one  thing  and  an  other  tell, 

My  soul  detests  him  aa  the  gates  of  hell." — Pope's  Homer. 

XVIII.  They  remove  relative  pronouns  and  other  connectives,  into  the 
body  of  their  clauses ;  as, 

1.  "Parts  the  fine  locks,  her  graceful  head  that  deck." — Darwin. 

2.  "  Not  half  so  dreadful  rises  to  the  sight 

Orion's  dog,  the  year  when  autumn  weighs." — Pope's  Homer. 

XIX.  They  make  intransitive  VERBS  iTsasMiv&i,  as, 

1.  ". A  while  he  st-ands, 

Gazing  the  inverted  landscape,  half  afraid 

To  meditate  the  blue  profound  below." — Thomson. 

2.  "  Still  in  harmonious  intercourse,  they  liv'd 

The  rural  day,  and  taWd  the  flowing  heart." — Id. 

XX.  They  give  to  the  imperative  mood  the  first  and  the  third  person ;  aS| 

1.  "  Turn  we  a  moment  fancy's  rapid  flight." — Tliomson. 

2.  "  Jie  man's  peculiar  work  his  sole  delight." — Beattie. 
S.  "  And  what  is  reason  ?    Be  she  thus  defin'd: 

Keason  is  upright  stature  in  the  soul  1" — Young. 

XXI.  They  employ  can,  could,  and  would  as  principal  verbs  transitive ; 
as, 

1.  "  WTiat  for  ourselves  we  can,  is  always  ours." 

2.  "  Who  does  the  best  his  circumstance  allows, 

Does  well,  acts  nobly : — angels  could  no  more.'''' —  Young. 

3.  "  What  would  this  man  ?    Now  upward  will  he  soar. 

And,  Uttle  less  than  angel,  would  be  more." — Pope. 

XXII.  They  place  the  infinitive  before  the  word  on  which  it  depends ;  us, 

"  When  first  thy  sire  to  send  on  earth 
Virtue,  his  darling  cliild,  design'd.'''' — Oray, 

XXin.  They  place  the  auxiliary  after  its  principal ;  as, 
"  No  longer  heed  the  sunbeam  bright 
That  plays  on  Carron's  breast  he  can.'''' — Langhorne. 

XXIV.  Before  verbs  they  sometimes  arbitrarily  employ  or  omit  prefixes : 
as,  begird,  bedim,  evanish,  emove ;  for  gird,  dim,  vanish,  move : — lure^  wail, 
vnlder,  reave  ;  for  allure,  bewail,  bewilder,  bereave. 

XXV.  They  abbreviate  verbs:  as,  list,  for  listen;  ope,  for  open. 

XXVI.  They  employ  several  verbs  that  are  not  used  in  prose,  or  are  used 
but  rarely ;  as,  appal,  astound,  brook,  cower,  doff,  ken,  wend,  ween,  trow. 

XXVn.  They  sometimes  imitate  a  Greek  construction  of  the  infinitive ; 
as, 

1.  "  Who  would  not  sing  for  Lycidas?  he  knew 

Himself  to  si»^,  and  build  the  lofty  rhyme." — Milton. 

2.  "  For  not,  to  have  been  dipp'd  in  Lethe  lake. 

Could  save  the  son  of  Thetis //•»?»  to  die.''^ — Spenser. 

XXVIII.  They  employ  the  PARTICIPLES  more  frequently  than  prose 
\mters,  and  in  a  construction  somewhat  peculiar ;  as, 

1.  "  He  came,  and,  standing  in  the  midst,  explain'd 

The  peace  rejected,  but  the  truce  obtain'a." — Pope. 

2.  "As  a  poor  miserable  captive  thrall 

Comes  to  the  place  where  he  before  had  sat 
Among  the  prime  in  splendor,  now  deposed, 
Ejected,  emptied,  gaz'd,  unpitied,  shunn'd, 
A  spectacle  of  ruin  or  of  scorn." — Milton. 

XXIX.  They  employ  several  AD  VERBS  that  are  not  used  in  prose,  or 
are  used  but  seldom ;  as,  oft,  haply,  inly,  blithely,  cheerily,  de/tly,/sUy,  ri/eiy, 
ru^uUy,  starkly,  yarely. 


APPENDIX  IV. — (PROSODY.) — POETIC   DICTIO-V.      343 

XXX.  They  give  to  adverbs  a  peculiar  location ;  as, 
1.  "  Peeping  irom  forth  their  alleys  green." — UolUm. 

2-  "  Erect  the  standard  there  ot'uucieut  uight." — Milton. 
S.  "  The  silence  often  of  pure  innocence 

Persuades,  when  speaking  fails." — Sliakspeare. 
4.  "  Where  universal  love  not  smiles  around." — Thomson. 
i>.  "  Eobs  ine  of  that  which  7wt  enriches  him." — Shakspeare. 

XXXI.  They  omit  the  introductory  adverb  there ;  as, 

"  Was  nought  around  but  images  of  rest." — Thomson. 

XXXII.  They  employ  the  COAWNCTIOFS,  or— or,  and  ncr—nor,  as 
correspondents ;  as, 

1.  "  ^r  by  the  lazy  Scheldt  or  wandering  Po." — Goldsmith. 

2.  *'  Wealth  heap'd  on  wealth,  iwr  truth  nor  safety  buys." — Johnson. 
8.  "  Who  by  repentance  is  not  satisfied, 

Is  nor  of  heaven,  nor  earth." — ShaJcspeare. 

XXXIII.  They  often  place  PREPOSITIONS  and  their  adjuncts,  before 
the  words  on  which  they  depend ;  as, 

"  Against  your  fame  with  fondness  hate  combines ; 
The  rival  batters,  and  the  lover  mines." — Johnson. 

XXXIV.  They  sometimes  place  the  preposition  after  its  object ;  as, 

1.  "  When  beauty,  Eden's  lowers  within, 

First  stretch'd  the  arm  to  deeds  of  sin, 
"When  passion  buru'd,  and  prudence  slept, 
The  TDitying  angels  bent  and  wept." — Hogg. 

2.  *'  The  Muses  fair,  these  peaceful  smdes  among, 

With  skillful  fingers  sweep  the  trembling  strings." — Lloyd. 

XXXV.  They  employ  INTERJECTIONS  mora  frequently  than  prose 
■writers;  as, 

"  0  let  me  gaze  ! — Of  gazing  there's  no  end. 
O  let  mo  think  ! — Thought  too  is  wilder'd  here." — Toitng. 

XXXVI.  They  em^loj  ANTIQUATED  WORDS  &nd  modes  of  expre*- 
Bion;  as, 

1.  "  Withouten  that  would  come  an  heavier  bale." — Thomson, 

2.  "He  was  to  weet,  a  little  roguish  page. 

Save  sleep  and  play,  who  minded  nought  at  all." — Id. 
8.  "  Not  one  eftsoons  in  view  was  to  be  found." — Id. 

4.  "  To  number  up  the  thousands  dwelhng  here, 

An  useless  were,  and  eJce  an  endless  task." — Id. 

5.  "  Of  clerks  good  plenty  here  you  mote  espy.'''' — Id. 

6.  "  But  these  J^poi'se/i  by,  with  nameless  numbers  fTwe." — Id. 


XBS  EHIL 


iSIS^    o^S;,iKS;^, 


."^ 


SCHOOL    BOOKS. 


BROWN'S  riRST  LINES  OF  iaiGUSH  GRAMMAE, 

designed  for  young  learners,  and 

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the  higher  classes, 

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they  are  again  offered  to  the  Managers  of  Schools,  03  tho 
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BROWN'S  GRAMMAR  OF  ENGLISH  GRAMMARS. 

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languase,  and  developes  almost  e/ve?'!/  peculiarity  of  idiom 
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Worcester,  as  a  book  of  reference." — Massachusetts  Teacher. 

COMSTOCK  AND  COMING'S  PRINCIPLES  OF  PHYSI- 
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Better  in  some  respecte  than  many  of  the  Headers  now  In 
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NEW-YORK  PRIMER. 
NEW-YORK  SPELLING-"RnOTr. 

Two  popular  works  for  tne  younger  classes,  filled  with  pictor- 
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A  selection  of  the  words  in  common  use,  with  their  definitions 
— better  adapted  for  Common  Seliools  than  most  of  the 
Dictionaries  extant. 


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